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D.  APPLETON  ^  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 


A  DIGEST  OF  THE  LAWS,  CUSTOMS,  MANNERS  AND 
INSTITUTIONS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

NATIONS. 

BY    THOMAS    DEW. 
Late  President  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary. 

1  A^ol.  8vo.  662  pages.  Price  $2  00. 
On  examination,  it  will  be  found  that  more  tlian  ordinary  labor  has 
been  expended  upon  this  work,  and  that  the  author  has  proceeded  upon 
higher  principles,  and  has  had  higher  aims  in  view  than  historical  com- 
pilers ordinarily  propose  to  themselves.  Instead  of  being  a  mere  cata- 
logue of  events,  chronologically  arranged,  it  is  a  careful,  laborious,  and 
instructive  digest  of  the  laws,  customs,  manners,  institutions,  and  civi- 
lization of  the  ancient  and  modern  nations. 

The  department  of  modern  history  in  pax'ticular  has  been  prepared 
with  unusual  care  and  industry.  , 

From  JouN  J.  Owen,  Professor  in  New  York  Fre&^cademy. 

"  I  have  examined  with  much  pleasure  Prof.  Dew's  '  Digest  of  the  Laws,  Manners, 
Customs,  &c.,  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Nations.'  It  furnishes  a  desideratum  in  the 
study  of  liistory  which  I  have  long  desired  to  see.  The  manner  In  which  history  is 
generally  studied  in  our  institutions  of  learning,  is,  in  my  judgment,  very  defective. 
The  great  central  points  or  epochs  of  history  are  not  made  to  stand  out  with  sufficient 
prominence.  Events  of  minor  importance  are  made  to  embarrass  the  memory  by  the 
confused  method  of  their  presentation  to  the  mind  ;  history  is  studied  by  pages  and  not 
by  subjects.  In  the  wilderness  of  events  tlirough  whicli  the  student  is  groping  his  way, 
he  soon  becomes  lost  and  perplexed.  The  past  is  as  obscure  as  the  future.  His  les.son 
soon  becomes  an  irksome  task.  The  memory  is  wearied  witli  the  monotonous  task  of 
striving  to  retain  the  multitudinous  events  of  each  daily  lesson. 

"This  evil  appears  to  be  remedied  in  a  great  degree  by  Prof.  Devv's  admirable  ar- 
rangement. Around  the  great  points  of  history  he  has  grouped  those  of  subordinate 
importance.  Each  section  is  introduced  by  a  caption,  in  which  the  subject  is  briefly 
stated,  and  so  as  to  be  easily  remembered.  Thus  the  student  having  mastered  the  lead- 
ing events,  will  find  little  or  no  difficulty  in  treasuring  up  the  minor  points  in  their 
order  and  connection.  I  trust  the  book  will  be  adopted  in  our  higher  institutions  of 
learning.    I  greatly  prefer  it  to  any  history  for  the  use  of  schools  which  I  have  seen." 


HISTORY    OF    GERMANY. 

BY  FKEDEEICH  KOHLEAUSCH. 
1  Vol.     500  pages.     8vo.     Price  $1  50. 
This  history  extends  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  present  time, 
and  has  been  translated  from   the  latest  German  edition  by  James  D. 

Hass. 

"  We  recommend  it  strongly  to  those  of  our  readers  who  desire  a  lucid,  comprehen 
Bive,  and  impartial  history  of  the  rise,  jrogress,  and  condition  of  the  Germanic  Empire 
— Evening  Gazette. 


D.  APPLE  TON  ^  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 


HISTORICAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTIONS. 

BY  EICHAKD  MAGNALL.     EEVISED  BY  MES.  LAUEENCE. 
12ino.     396  pages.     Price  §1  00. 

The  American  outlioress  of  this  excellent  book  has  made  it  pecu- 
liarly well  adapted  to  the  schools  of  this  country  by  adding  to  it  a 
chapter  on  the  history  and  constitntion  of  the  United  States,  and  by 
large  additions  on  tlie  elements  of  mytholog}',  astronomy,  architecture, 
heraldry,  «fcc.,  &c.  This  edition  is  embellished  by  numerous  cuts,  a 
large  portion  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  judicious  questions  and  answers 
on  ancient  and  modern  history,  which  must  be  very  serviceable  to 
teachers  and  i)Upils. 

"  This  is  an  admirable  work  to  aid  botli  teacbers  and  parents  in  instructing  chiidren 
and  youth,  and  tliere  is  no  work  of  the  liind  that  we  have  seen  that  is  so  well  calculat- 
ed to  '  awaken  a  spirit  of  laudable  curiosity  In  young  minds,'  and  to  satisfy  that  curiosity 
when  awakened." — Commercial  Advertiser. 


HISTORY    OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

BY  GEO.  W.  GEEENE. 
1  Vol.     12mo.     450  pages.     Price  $1  00. 

This  work  will  be  found  to  contain  a  clear  and  satisfactory  exposi- 
tion of  the  revolutions  of  the  middle  ages,  with  such  general  views  of 
literature,  society,  and  manners,  as  are  required  to  explain  the  passages 
from  ancient  to  modern  history. 

Instead  of  a  single  list  of  sovereigns,  the  author  has  given  fall 
genealogical  tables,  which  are  much  clearer  and  infinitely  more  satis- 
factory. 


GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION  IN  EUROPE. 

BY  M.  GUIZOT. 

1  Vol.     316  pages.     12mo.     Price  $1  00. 

This  work  embraces  a  period  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  to 
the  French  revolution,  and  has  been  edited  from  the  second  Englist 
edition,  by  Prof.  C.  S.  Henry,  who  has  added  a  few  notes.  The  whole 
work  is  made  attractive  by  the  clear  and  lively  style  of  the  author. 


D.  APPLE  TON  f  CO.,  PUBLISHEnS. 


MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 
12nio.     396  pages.     Price  $1  00. 

This  work  was  originally  prepared  by  Wilhelm  Piitz,  an  eminent 

j-enuan  scholar,  and  translated  and  edited  in  England  by  Kev.  T.  K. 

\rnold,  and  is  now  revised  and  introduced  to  the  American  public  in  a 

well-written  preface,  by  Mr.   George  W.  Greene,  teacher  of  modern 

languages  in  Brown  University. 

As  a  text-book  on  Ancient  Plistory  for  Colleges  and  advanced  Aca- 
demies, this  volume  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the  best  compends  pub- 
lished. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  MEDIEVAL  GEOGRAPHY  &  HISTORY. 

BY  WILIIELM  PUTZ. 

TRANSLATED  BY  REV.  R.  B.  PAUL,  M.  A. 

1  Vol.  211  pages.  12mo.  Price  75  Cents. 

The  characteristics  of  this  volume  are:  precision,  condensation,  and 
luminous  arrangement.  It  is  precisely  what  it  pretends  to  be — a 
manual,  a  sure  and  conscientious  guide  for  the  student  through  the 
crooks  and  tangles  of  Medieval  History.  All  the  great  principles  of 
this  extensive  period  are  carefully  laid  down,  and  the  most  important 
facts  skilfully  grouped  around  them. 


MANUAL  OF  MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 

BY  WILHELM  PUTZ. 

TRANSLATED  BY  REV.  R.  B.  PAUL,  M.  A. 

12mo.     836  pages.     Price  $1  00. 

This  volume  completes  the  series  of  the  author's  works  on  geography 
and  history.  Every  important  fact  of  the  period,  comprehensive  as  it 
is  both  in  geography  and  history,  is  presented  in  a  concise  yet  clear 
and  connected  manner,  so  as  to  be  of  value,  not  only  as  a  text-book  for 
students,  but  to  the  general  reader  for  reference.  Although  the  facts 
are  greatly  condensed,  as  of  necessity  they  must  be,  yet  they  are  pre- 
sented with  so  much  distinctness  as  to  produce  a  fixed  impression  on 
the  mind.  It  is  also  reliable  as  the  work  of  an  indefatigable  German 
scholar,  for  correct  information  relating  to  the  progress  and  changes  of 
states  and  nations — literature,  the  sciences  and  the  arts — and  all  that 
combines  in  modern  civilization. 

7 


D.  APPLETON  Si'  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 


HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

BY  G.  K.  LATHAM,  M.  D.,  F.  E.  S. 
12mo.      400  pages.      Price  $1  25. 

This  work  is  designed  for  the  use  of  students  in  the  University  and 
High  Schools. 

"  His  work  is  rigidly  scientific,  and  lienco  possesses  a  rare  value.  "With  the  wlde- 
Bpreading  growth  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  dialect,  the  immense  present  and  prospective 
power  of  those  with  whom  this  is  their  '  mother  tongue,'  such  a  treatise  must  be  counted 
alike  interesting  and  useful." — Watchman  and  Reflector. 

"A  work  of  great  research,  miicli  learning,  and  to  every  thinking  scholar  it  will  be  a 
book  of  study.  The  Germanic  origin  of  the  English  language,  the  affinities  of  the  Eng- 
lish with  other  langu.ages,  a  sketcli  of  the  alphabet,  a  minute  investigation  of  the  etymo- 
logy of  tho  language,  &c.,  of  great  value  to  every  philologist" — Observer. 


HISTORY  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

BY  WILLIAM  SPALDING,  A.  M. 

TBOFESSOE  OF  LOGIC,  BHETOEIO,  AND  METAPHT8I08,  IN  THE  UNIVEESITY  OF  6T.  ANDREWS. 

12mo,     413  pages.     PrBce  $1  00. 

The  above  work,  which  is  ji:st  published,  is  ofi'ered  as  a  Text-book 
for  the  use  of  advanced  Schools  and  Academies.  It  traces  the  literary 
progress  of  the  nation  from  its  dawn  in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  down  to 
the  present  day.  Commencing  at  tliis  early  period,  it  is  so  constructed 
as  to  introduce  the  reader  gradually  and  easily  to  studies  of  this  kind. 
Comparatively  little  speculation  is  presented,  and  tliose  literary  monu- 
ments of  the  earlier  dates,  which  were  thought  most  worthy  of  atten 
lion,  are  described  with  considerable  fulness  and  in  an  attractive 
manner.  In  tlie  subsequent  pages,  more  frequent  and  sustained  efforts 
are  made  to  arouse  reflection,  both  by  occasional  remarks  on  the  rela- 
tions between  intellectual  culture  and  the  other  elements  of  society, 
and  by  hints  as  to  the  theoretical  laws  on  which  criticism  should  be 
founded.  The  characteristics  of  the  most  celebrated  modern  works  are 
analyzed  at  considerable  length. 

The  manner  of  the  author  is  remarkably  plain  and   interesting, 

almost  compelling  the  reader  to  linger  over  his  pages  with  unwearied 

attention. 

17 


MANUAL 


OF 


ANCIEIT    HISTORY; 


CONTAINING 


niE  POLITICAL  HISTORY,  GEOGRAPHICAL  POSITION,  AND  SOCIAI. 
STATE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  OF  ANTIQUITY ; 

CAREFULUr   REVISED 

FROM   THE  ANCIENT  WRITERS 
BY    W.   C.    TAYLOR.    LL.D.,  M.II.A.S., 

OF   TRINITr   COLLEGE,    DCTBLUf. 
REVISED, 

BY    C.    S.    HENRY,    D.  D. , 

PROFESSOR   OF    PHILOSOPHV    AND    HISTORV    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY 
OF   THE    CITY    OF    NEW-YORK. 

WITU     QUESTIONS     ADAPTED     FOR     SCUOOLS     AND    COLIiEQES. 
EIGHTH   EDITION, 

CAREFULLY    REVISED    AND    CORRECTED. 

NEW-YOEK: 
D,    APPLETON    &    COMPANY, 

846    &    348    BROADWAY. 
M.DCCC.LIV. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1844,  by 

D.   At-PLETON    &   CO., 

5S!  tiie  Clerk's  Offic  of  the  District  Cour'.  for  the  Southern  District  of  Nevv-Yoria 


PREFACE. 


In  bringing  out  an  American  edition  of  this  work,  the  publisliers 
were  desirous  rot  only  to  furnish  a  valuable  work  for  general  readers, 
but  also  to  make  it  in  point  of  size  and  price  as  well  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  public  instruction  as  they  believed  it  to  be  in  intrinsic  merit 
In  complying  with  their  request  to  revise  the  work  with  this  view,  the 
present  editor  has  made  a  few  slight  curtailments — principally  in  the 
first  part  of  the  volume  of  Ancient  History — which  could  be  made  with- 
out suppressing  or  in  any  way  distorting  or  impairing  any  material  fact 
or  statement. 

In  the  English  edition,  all  that  is  to  be  found  relating  to  the  history 
of  the  United  States  amounts  to  two  or  three  pages,  interspersed  in  the 
history  of  England.  In  the  place  of  these  meager  notices,  the  present 
editor  has  appended  to  the  volume  of  Modern  History  a  distinct  and 
special  chapter,  giving  to  the  history  of  the  United  States  its  proportion- 
ate place  in  general  history,  and  to  which  it  is  certainly  entitled  in  i 
work  designed  for  public  instruction  in  this  country.  He  trusts  that 
this  sketch  will  be  found  to  contain  a  fair  and  clear  view  of  the  leading 
events  of  our  history. 

In  the  preface  to  the  third  American  edition  of  Guizot's  History  of 
European  Civilization,  the  present  editor  took  occasion  to  offer  som.; 
remarks  upon  the  study  of  history  as  a  part  of  the  course  of  siiulics 
pursued  in  our  higher  institutions  :  in  which  he  attempted  to  answer  the 
extremely  difficult  question,  "  How  best  to  employ  the  very  limited  time 
allotted  to  history  in  the  usual  course  of  public  instruction  ?"  On  the 
one  hand,  it  is  obvious  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  history  ( whic  h  it 
is  the  work  of  years  to  gain)  can  never  be  acquired  in  the  tune  allowed  . 


yl  -9  O  I    I  t*i 


iv  PREFACE. 

anfl  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  make  a  successful  be 
giuuiiig,  to  lay  a  good  for.ndation  in  history,  than  in  the  other  studies 
included  in  the  usual  public  course.  This  it  is  which  makes  the  most 
useful  employment  of  the  little  time  allowed  so  perplexing  a  problem. 

The  conclusion  to  which  the  editor  arrived  was,  that  in  the  impos- 
sibility of  communicating  a  thorough  knowledge  of  history  in  this  time, 
thus  much  should  be  attempted  :  1 .  The  study  of  some  judicious  work 
of  general  history  ;  2.  The  study  of  some  good  specimen  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  history,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  method  of  generalizing  and 
reflecting  upon  the  facts  of  history  ;  and  3.  The  thorough  investigation 
of  some  small  portion  of  special  history.  The  editor  recommended  the 
work  of  Guizot,  referred  to  above,  as  a  good  specimen  of  philosophical 
reflection  upon  history  ;  and  he  knows  no  work  on  general  history  better 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  public  instruction  than  the  present. 

C.  S.  H 

New  York,  DeceinJter  11,  1S44. 


INTRODUCTION, 


The  use  of  history  is  not  to  load  the  memory  with  facts,  but  to  s  jL'-ra 
the  miud  with  principles — to  collect  from  tho  experience  of  past  agea 
rules  for  our  conduct  as  individuals  and  as  members  of  society.  Every 
historical  work,  therefore,  professes  to  give  only  a  selection  ol'  events  ; 
and  the  writer's  choice  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  his  history  :  the 
general  historian  directs  attention  to  the  occurrences  that  have  changed 
the  general  aspect  of  society,  the  revolutions  of  states  and  empires,  the 
causes  that  led  to  them,  and  the  consequences  by  which  they  were  fol- 
lowed. The  special  historian  confines  his  attention  to  one  class  of 
facts,  specified  in  the  title  of  his  work :  thus  the  ecclesiastical  historian 
writes  only  of  the  affairs  of  the  church ;  the  military  historian  confmes 
his  narrative  to  wars  and  battles ;  and  the  commercial  historian  devotes 
his  attention  exclusively  to  trade. 

But  even  general  histories  may,  in  some  degree,  be  regarded  as 
special ;  their  object  may  be  called  "  political,"  that  is,  they  profess  to 
describe  the  destinies  of  nations,  both  in  their  external  relations  with 
foreign  states,  and  ia  their  internal  affairs.  Under  the  first  head  are 
comprised  wars,  treaties  of  peace  or  alliance,  and  commercial  inter- 
course ;  under  the  second,  governments,  institutions,  and  maantrs. 
Such  a  history  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  a  history  of  civilization ; 
foi  it  will  describe  the  progress  of  social  improvement,  and  the  prog- 
ress of  the  human  mind.  These  essential  parts  of  civilization  must 
uoi  be  ccnfo:md8d;  for  Me  shidl  hare  more  than  on^e  occas  on  to 
remark,  tl;at  the  Kocial  system,  or,  in  other  words,  the  relations  between 
the  did'erent  parts  of  society,  may  display  great  wisdom  and  justice 
while  men,  in  their  indi\idual  capacity,  continue  the  slaves  of  igrocaiioo 
an"!  superotition. 

A  distinction  is  usually  made  between  the  narrative  and  the  pluloso 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

phy  of  history  ■  in  the  former  are  included  the  actions  of  king.s  and 
rulers,  the  accounts  of  wars  and  treaties,  the  rise  and  fall  of  empires  ; 
in  the  latter  are  comprehended  descriptions  of  the  political  and  religious 
institutions,  the  organization  of  society,  the  amount  of  knowledge,  the 
state  of  industry  and  the  arts,  the  morals,  the  habits,  and  the  prevailing 
prejudices  in  any  age  or  nation ;  and  the  facts  thus  ascertained  by  phi- 
losophy, are  shown  to  be  the  causes  of  the  events  detailed  in  the  nar- 
rative. It  is  possible  to  go  back  a  step  further,  and  to  trace  the  origin 
of  these  institutions  and  manners  in  the  succession  of  opir^ons,  and 
gradual  development  of  the  human  intellect.  But  unassisted  reason 
can  go  no  further :  the  law  fixed  by  Providence  for  the  succession  of 
opinions  and  development  of  mind,  can  oidy  be  known  to  its  omniscient 
Author,  but  that  such  a  law  exists,  is  proved  to  us  by  the  fulfilment  of 
prophecy,  by  the  frequent  instances  of  unconscious  agents  working  out 
the  great  designs  of  God. 

It  is  proposed  in  the  following  pages  to  imite  the  philosophy  with 
the  narrative  of  history,  to  combine  events  with  their  causes,  and  direct 
occasionally  the  attention  of  the  student  to  the  progress  of  civilization, 
both  in  its  effect  on  society  and  on  individuals.  Sacred  history — the 
account  of  the  direct  operations  of  the  Divine  agency  on  his  chosen 
servants  and  chosen  people — is  necessarily  excluded  from  a  political 
history  ;  but  the  general  course  of  Providence  displayed  in  the  moral 
government  of  his  creatures  is  an  essential  element  of  our  plan  :  it  is, 
in  fact,  the  principle  of  unity  that  binds  together  its  several  parts. 

"^he  necessary  companions  of  history  are  chronology  and  geography  j 
they  determine  the  time  when,  and  the  place  where,  each  event  oc- 
curred. The  difficulties  of  chronology  arise  both  from  the  imperfection 
of  record.?,  and  from  varieties  in  the  mode  of  computation  :  the  former 
can  EOt  be  remedied ;  but,  to  prevent  the  mistakes  which  may  arise 
from  this  cause,  uncertain  dates  have  been  marked  with  an  asterisk  : 
the  second  source  of  confusion  is  removed  by  using  throughout  solai 
years  for  a  rrea&'uro  of  time,  and  the  birth  of  Christ  as  an  era  from 
which  to  reckon. 

Instead  of  constructing  a  general  system  of  ancient  geography,  it 
has  seemed  better  to  prefix  a  geographical  outline  of  the  history  of 
each  separate  country,  and  to  combine  with  it  some  account  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  and  its  most  remarkable  animal  and  vegetable  produc- 
tions. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  position,  climate,  and  fertility  of  a 
country,  have  a  powerful  influence  over  the  character,  condition,  and 
destiny  of  its  inhabitants,  and  ought  not  to  be  omitted  in  tlic  considera- 
tion of  tlieir  history. 


INTRODUCTION.  VH 

The  arrangement  of  this  work  is  both  chronological  and  geographi- 
cal ;  the  history  of  each  country  is  given  separately,  but  the  states  are 
arranged  in  the  order  of  iheir  attaining  a  commanding  influence  in  the 
rt'orld.  To  this  there  are  two  exceptions — Egypt,  which  is  placed 
first,  on  account  of  its  being  the  earliest  organized  government  of 
which  w^e  have  any  authentic  record  ;  and  India,  which  is  placed  last, 
because  it  exercised  no  marked  inlluence  over  the  most  remarkable 
nations  of  ancient  times. 

The  history  of  Greece  in  this  A^olumc  has  a  le&s  orderly  appearance 
than  in  most  similar  works,  because  it  contains  not  merely  the  histories 
of  Athens  and  Sparta,  to  which  most  writers  confine  their  attention, 
but  also  those  of  the  minor  states,  the  islands  and  the  colonies.  A 
chapter  has  been  added  on  the  colonial  policy  of  the  Greeks — a  subject 
of  great  importance  in  itself,  and  peculiarly  interesting  to  a  commer- 
cial country. 

To  the  Roman  history  there  is  prefixed  a  brief  account  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy  before  the  era  usually  assigned  for  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  In  the  earlier  period  of  the  republic,  notice  is 
taken  of  the  reasonable  doubts  that  have  been  raised  respecting  the 
authenticity  of  the  common  narrative  ;  but  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid 
an  excess  of  skepticism,  which  is  at  least  as  bad  as  an  excess  of 
credulity. 

In  the  chapter  on  India,  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  ancient 
routes  of  trade  between  that  country  and  eastern  Europe  :  many  of 
these  subsist  to  the  present  day ;  projects  have  been  formed  for  reopen- 
ing others  ;  some  account  of  them  consequently  appears  necessary, 
for  illustrating  both  ancient  commerce  and  modern  policy. 

In  a  general  summary,  restricted  within  narrow  limits,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  avoid  dryness  of  details ;  notes  have  therefore  been  added, 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  illustrations  and  anecdotes,  that  may 
serve  both  to  relieve  the  mind,  and  to  place  important  traits  of  charac- 
ter, national  and  individual,  in  a  clearer  light. 

It  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  take  some  notice  of  the  mythology, 
as  well  as  the  real  history,  of  nations  ;  for  though  mythic  traditions 
may  in  many  or  in  most  instances  have  had  no  foundation,  yet  they 
should  not  be  wholly  neglected  by  the  historian,  for  they  had  a  share 
in  forming,  and  they  help  to  illustrate,  the  character  of  the  nation  by 
which  they  were  once  believed.  At  the  same  time,  care  has  been 
taken  to  separate  these  traditions  from  the  authenticated  narrative,  and 
to  discriminate  between  those  that  have,  and  those  that  have  not,  soma 
probable  foundation  in  fact. 


VIU  INTROUdOTION. 

Political  reflections  and  moral  inferences  from  the  narrative  have,  in 
general,  been  avoided  :  the  instructive  lessons  of  history  are,  for  the 
most  part,  found  on  the  surface,  and  may  best  be  collected  by  the  stu- 
dents themselves.  It  is  not  quite  fair  to  prejudge  questions  for  the 
mind ;  the  chief  business  of  those  who  write  for  the  young  should  be 
to  make  them  think,  not  to  think  for  them. 

The  author  has  to  acknowledge  his  great  obligations  to  the  works 
of  Professor  Heeren,  whose  volumes  on  the  Politics,  Intercourse,  and 
Trade  of  Ancient  Nations,  should  form  part  of  every  historical  library; 
he  has  also  borrowed  very  copiously  from  the  valuable  essays  that  have 
appeared  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscriptions ;  his 
particular  obligations  in  the  several  chapters  need  not  be  specified, 
most  of  them  being  mentioned  in  the  notes. 

The  design  of  this  introduction  is  merely  to  explain  the  plan  of  the 
work  ;  some  (gw  suggestions,  however,  may  be  added  on  tho  mode 
of  using  it.  Students  should  compare  the  geograpiiical  chapters  with 
maps,  and  fix  in  their  minds  the  most  characteristic  natural  features  of 
the  country  whose  history  they  are  about  to  connnonce.  One  division 
should  be  thoroughly  mastered  before  another  is  begun  ;  and  when  the 
whole  is  gone  through,  it  will  be  found  a  most  useful  exercise  te 
synchronize  the  events  in  the  history  of  one  country  with  the  events  ir 
the  history  of  another ;  for  instance,  to  trace  the  condition  of  the  R« 
m&c  republic  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Arbela. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


ANCIENT   HISTORY 


Chapter  I. —  Egypt. 

page; 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline ...,..uol 

II.  Political  and  Social  Condition  of  the  Egyptians ,2 

HI.  History  of  Egypt  from  the  earliest  Period  to  the  Accession  of  Psani- 

metichus 6 

rV.  History  of  Egypt  from  the  Reign  of  Psammeiichus  to  its  subjugation 

by  Cambyses 9 

V.  Egyptian  Manufactures  and  Commerce 11 

Chapter  H. — The  Ethiopians. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline  and  Natural  History 13 

II.  History  of  the  Ethiopians ]4 

m.  Arts,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures  of  Meroe 15 

Chapter  III. — Bahjkmia  atui  jissyria. 

SscT.  I.  Geographical  Outline  and  Natural  History 17 

II.  Political  and  Social  Condition  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 1« 

III.  History  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 19 

IV.  Description  of  Nineveh  and  Bauylon 23 

V.  Commerce  and  Manufactures  of  the  Babylonians 25 

Chapter  IV. — Western  Asia.    . 

Sect.  I.  Asia  Minor. — Geographical  Outline 27 

II.  Ancient  History  of  Asia  Minor 28 

III.  Syria. — Geographical  Outline 29 

rV.  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Syrians  and  Phunicians.. 30 

V.  History  of  the  Syrians  and  Phcenicians 31 

VI.  Phoenician  Cobnits  ard  Foreign  Possessions , .32 

VU.  Phojnician  Manufactures  and  C  >mir.erce 33 

Chapter  V.— ^Palestine. 

9£CT.  I.  Geographical  Outline 36 

II.  History  of  Palestine 36 

III.  The  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua 39 

IV.  Histor}'  of  Israel  under  the  Judges. «.. 40 


X  TABLE    Of    COXTF.NTS. 

PASS 

SEcr.  V.  History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel 42 

VI,  The  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes.— The  Kingdom  of  Israel 41 

VII.  The  Kingdom  of  Judah aJ 

Chapter  \l.—  The  Empire  of  the  Medes  and  Persians. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline .58 

II.  Sources  and  Extent  of  our  Knowledge  respecting  the  Ancient 

Persians 59 

III.  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Ancient  Persia 60 

IV.  History  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  under  the  Kuianian  Dynasty 62 

V.  History  of  the  Persians  under  theliystaspid Dynasty 64 

Chapter  VII. — Phanician  Colonies  in  Northern  Africa. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline  of  Noithern  Africa 68 

II.  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Carihage 69 

III.  History  of  Carthage  from  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Com- 

mencement of  the  Syracusan  Wars "0 

IV.  History  of  Carthage  during  the  Sicilian  Wars 73 

V.  From  the  Commencement  of  the  Roman  Wars  to  the  Destruction  of 

^  Carthage ■ 76 

VI.  Navigation,  Trade,  and  Commerce  of  Carthage 79 

Chapter  VIII. — The  Foundation  of  the  Grecian  States. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline  of  Hellas 81 

II.  Geographical  Outline  of  the  Peloponnesus 83 

III.  The  Grecian  Islands  in  the  iEgean  and  Mediterranean  Seas 8& 

IV.  The  Ionian  Islands 85 

V.  The  Social  and  Political  C  ondition  of  Greece 86 

VI.  Traditional  History  of  Greece  from  the  earliest  Ages  to  the  Com- 

mencement of  the  Trojan  War 89 

VII.  From  the  Trojan  War  to  the  Colonization  of  Asia  Minor 92 

Chapter  IX. — History  of  the  Grecian  States  and  Colonies  before  the 

Persian  War. 

Sect.  I.  Topography  of  Sparta 95 

II.  Legislation  of  Lycurgus,  and  the  Messenian  Wars 95 

III.  Topography  of  Athens 97 

IV.  History  of  Athens  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian  War 99 

V.  Historical  Notices  of  the  Minor  States  of  Greece  previous  to  the 

Persian  War '02 

VI.  History  of  the  principal  Grecian  Islands 103 

VII.  History  of  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Asia  Minor 104 

VIII.  History  of  the  G'-eek  Colonies  on  the  Euxine  Sea,  Coast  of  Thrace, 

Macedon,  &.c 106 

CHAPT"ii  Y. — History  of  Greece  from  the  Persian  Wars  to  the 
Accession  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Sect.  I.  The  First  Persian  War 108 

II.  The  Second  Persian  War HO 

III.  The  First  Peloponnesian  War 1 13 

IV.  The  Second  Peloponnesian  War 118 

V.  Tyrannical  Rule  of  Sparta.— Third  Peloponnesian  War 121 

VI.  The  Second  Sacred  War.— Destruction  of  Grecian  Freedom 128 

Chapter  XI. — The  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire. 

Bkct.  I.  Geographical  Outline  of  Macedon 131 

II.  Hittory  of  the  Macedonian  Monarchy 132 

III.  Dissolution  of  the  Macedonian  Empire 138 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  Xl 

Chaiter  XII. — Historxj  of  the  States  that  arose  from  the  Dismembermeni 
of  tlie  Macedonian  Empire. 

TAGS. 

Sect.  T.  History  of  Macedon  and  Greece  from  the  Battle   of  Ipsus  to  the 

Roman  Conquest 143 

II.  History  of  the  Kinsidom  of  Syria  under  the  Seleucidse 153 

III.  History  of  Esrypt  under  the  Ptolemies 158 

IV.  History  of  the  Minor  Kingdoms  in  Western  Asia 162 

V.  History  of  Bactria  and  Parthia 166 

VI.  History  of  Idumea,  and  its  Capital  Petra .168 

V^II.  History  of  the  Jews  from  their  Return  out  of  tlie  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus 171 

Chapter  XIII. — History  of  Ancient  Italy. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline 183 

II.  Historical  Notices  of  the  early  Inhabitants  of  Italy 187 

III.  The  Greek  Colonies  in  Italy 19f 

Chapter  XIV. — History  of  Sicily. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline 193 

II.  Historical  Notices  of  the  early  Inhabitants  of  Sicily 196 

in.  The  History  of  Syracuse 197 

Chapter  XV. — History  of  the  Roman  Republic. 

Sect.  I.  Traditions  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Romans 20(. 

II.  From  the  Foundation  of  Rome  to  the  Abolition  of  Royalty .201 

III.  From  the  Establishment  of  the  Roman  Republic  to  the  Burning  of 

the  City  by  the  Gauls ' 206 

rV.  From  the  Rebuilding  of  the  City  to  the  First  Punic  War 215 

V.  From  the  Commencement  of  the  Punic  Wars  to  the  Beginning  of  the 

Civil  Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi 218 

VI.  From  the  Beginning  of  the  Civil  Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi  to 

the  Downfall  of  the  Republic 223 

VII.  The  Establishment  of  the  Roman  Empire 237 

O/'hapter  XVI. — Geographical  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Sect.  I.  European  Countries. — Spain 243 

II.  Transalpine  Gaul 243 

III.  Britain 244 

IV.  Northern  Provinces  of  the  Empire 245 

V.  Asiatic  and  African  Provinces 247 

VI.  The  Principal  Nations  on  the  Frontiers  of  the  Empire 248 

VII.  Topography  of  the  City  of  Rome 251 

Chapter  XVII. — History  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

S'i^T.  I.  The  Reigns  of  the  Family  of  the  Caesars. . 25(5 

II.  From  the  Extinction  of  the  Julian   to  that  of  the  first   Flavian 

Family 265 

III.  From  the  Extinction  of  the  first  Flavian  Family  to  the  last  of  the 

Antonines 271 

IV.  Foreign    Commerce    of  the  Romans     in  the  Age  of  the    Anto- 

nines  278 

V.  From  the  Extinction   of  the  Antonines  to  the   Establishment  of 

Military  Despotism 280 

VI.  From  the  Murder  of  Alexander  Severus  to  the  Captivity  of  Valerian 

and  the  Usurpation  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants ^85 


XU  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

Sect.  VII.  From  the  Captivity  of  Valerian  to  the  Resisjnation  of  Diocl'.sian. .  .289 
VIII.  From  the  Resis;nation  of  Dioclesian  to  the  Death  of  Conslantine 

the  Great. 295 

IX.  From  the  Death  of  Constantine  to  the  Reunion  of  the  Empire 

under  Theodosius  the  Great 30) 

X.  Overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire 313 

Chapter  XVIII.— 7ni?a. 
Early  History ...,.3  * 


THE 


STUDENT'S  MANUAL 


OF 


ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 
EGYPT. 

Section  1. — Geographical  Outline. 


Egypt  is  the  country  in  which  we  first  find  a  government  ahd  polit- 
ical institutions  established.  Civilization  everywhere  seems  lO  have 
commenced  in  the  formation  of  agricultural  associations,  on  the  banks 
of  rivers  ;  and  the  Nile  invites  men  to  tillage  more  forcibly  than  any 
other.  Egypt  itself  has  been  called,  from  the  earliest  antiquity,  "  the 
Gift  of  the  Nile,"  and  its  annual  inundations  have  had  a  vast  influence 
over  the  lives  and  customs,  the  religion  and  science,  indeed,  the  entire 
social  existence  of  the  people.  It  appears  that  civilization  advanced 
northward  along  the  valley  of  the  river :  and  we  shall  therefore  com- 
mence our  examination  of  the  land,  at  the  southern  frontier  of  Egypt. 

The  Nile  enters  Egypt  near  the  city  of  Syene,  below  the  cataracts, 
and  flows  through  a  narrow  valley,  about  nine  miles  in  breadth,  to 
Chem'mis,  wh^re  the  valley  begins  to  widen.  At  Cercasorus,  sixty 
miles  from  its  mouth,  the  stream  divides,  and  encloses  a  triangular 
piece  of  country,  called  the  Delta,  The  narrow  valley  from  Syene  to 
Chem'mis  was  called  Upper  Egypt ;  the  wider  valley,  Middle  Egjnpt ; 
and  the  Delta,  Lower  Egypt. 

Rain  seldom  falls  in  Lower  Egypt,  almost  never  in  the  upper 
regions  :  the  fertility  of  the  country,  therefore,  depends  on  the  annual 
overflowings  of  the  river.  These  inundations  are  caused  by  the  heavy 
rains,  that  fall  in  Upper  Ethiopia,  from  May  to  September.  The  rivers 
of  that  country  pour  their  waters  into  the  Nile,  which  begins  to  rise 
about  the  middle  of  June.  Early  in  August,  the  river  overflows  its 
banks,  giving  the  valley  of  the  Nile  the  appearance  of  an  inland  sea. 
Toward  the  beginning  of  October,  the  waters  begin  to  subside,  and,  by 
the  end  of  the  month,  are  confined  to  the  proper  channel  of  the  river. 
The  fertility  of  Egypt  extends  as  far  as  this  inundation  reaches,  oi  can 
be  continued  by  artificial  means. 

1 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


TAe  eastern  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  a  mountainous  rango 
of  country,  extending  to  the  Red  sea,  suited,  in  some  districts,  for  pas- 
turage, but  unfit  for  agriculture ;  abounding,  however,  in  those  rich 
quarnes  of  marble  and  building  stone,  that  formed  the  inexhaustible 
magazines  for  the  arcliitectural  wonders  of  Egypt. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  the  valley  is  bounded  by  a  stony 
rido-e  covered  with  sand,  which  slopes  on  its  remote  side,  into  the 
Great  Desert  This  ridge  protects  the  valley  from  the  sands  of  the 
desert,  which  would  otherwise  desolate  the  whole  country. 

Upper  Egypt  contains  far  the  most  numerous  and  interesting  monu- 
ments. Near  the  cataracts,  are  the  islands  of  Philae  and  Slephantuie 
containing  the  proudest  edifices  of  antiquity ;  lower  down,  the  c.  ty  ot 
Apollo ;  then  Thebes,  filling  the  whole  valley  on  both  sides  of  the 
Nile  with  enormous  temples,  more  like  mountains  than  human  edifices 
colossal  statues,  sphinxes,  and  obelisks,  with  the  Catacombs,  in  the 
mountains  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river  ;  and  lastly,  Dendera,  with 
the  celebrated  Zodiac  sculptured  on  its  mighty  temple. 

Middle  Egypt  is  a  wider  valley.  It  contains  the  lake  Moeris,  ar 
immense  res*ervoir,  partly  natural^  partly  artificial,  and  affording  suet 
facilities  for  regulating  the  irrigation  of  the  country,  that  this  was  the 
most  fertile  district  of  Egypt.  The  labyrinth,  so  renowned  in  antiquity 
was  near  Arsinoe.  Below  Arsin'oewas  Memphis,  the  capital  of  Middle 
Egypt.  This  was  the  city  of  the  Pharaohs  who  received  the  family 
of  Israel.  There  are  now  but  slight  remains  of  its  temples  and 
palaces  :  the  neighboring  mountains  are,  however,  filled  with  catacombs 
similar  to  those  of  Upper  Egypt.  But  the  most  remarkable  monuments 
of  this  district  are  the  Pyramids. 

Lower  Egypt,  or  the  Delta,  possesses,  from  the  extension  of  the 
river,  a  greater  quantity  of  fertile  land  than  the  other  districts.  It  was 
covered  with  flourishing  cities,  as  Sa'is,  Naucratis,  and  Alexandria, 
which  last,  situated  on  the  western  frontier  of  the  Lybian  desert,  still 
retains  the  name,  and  proves  by  its  extensive  trade  the  wisdom  of  its 

great  founder,  ■■>■,■ 

The  more  civilized  portion  of  lae  Egyptians  dwelt  in  the  rich  plains 
of  the  valley,  and  attained  a  perfection  in  the  arts  of  social  life,  that 
but  for  the  irresistible  evidence  of  the  monuments,  v/ould  scarcely  be 
credited.  It  was  the  great  object  of  the  sacerdotal  and  royal  policy, 
to  keep  this  population  stationary,  to  direct  their  attention  to  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  manufactures,  and  to  prevent  them  from  adopting 
the  nomad  life  of  the  pastoral  and  plundering  tribes  on  their  north- 
eastern frontiers  :  and  hence  we  find  it  recorded,  that  "  every  shepherd 
was  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians." 

Section  II.— Political  and  Social  Condition  of  the  Egyptians. 

It  appears  that  the  Egyptians  were  a  brown  race  of  people,  and 
that  the  higher  castes  of  priests  and  warriors  were  fairer  than  the  othei 
classes.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Egyptians  derived  their 
system  of  civilization  from  the  Hindus :  but  it  is  difHcuh  to  conceive 
how  this  could  be. 

Local  circumstances  produced  marked  differences  in  \he  habits  and 


fiGYPT.  3 

Rianners  of  the  people  In  the  mountainous  eastern  districts  and  in 
the  fens  of  the  Delta,  where  agriculture  was  impossible,  the  inhabitants 
led  a  pastoral  life.  On  the  Nile  and  along  the  coast,  were  tribes  of 
fishermen.  In  the  rich  plains,  dwelt  the  more  civilized  part  of  the 
nation.  The  institution  of  castes  existed  among  them.  The  priests 
and  warriors  were  the  most  honored ;  next,  the  agriculturists,  mer- 
chants, mariners,  and  artisans ;  the  lowest  caste  was  that  of  shep- 
herds. 

The  migrations  of  the  priestly  caste  from  their  native  regions  in  the 
south,  were  not  simultaneous ;  they  formed  settlements  at  different 
times,  in  tJie  most  fertile  portions  of  the  valley.  The  central  point  of 
the  colony  was  always  a  temple,  round  which  cities  were  gradually 
formed.  These  settlements  afterward  led  to  the  division  of  the  country 
into  nomes,  a  name  given  by  the  Egyptians  to  a  city,  its  environs  and 
dependant  villages.  There  was  a  religious  (as  originally  a  political) 
distinction  between  these  nomes :  each  city  had  its  own  presiding 
deity,  and  the  animals  regarded  as  sacred  in  one  nome  were  not 
resppcted  in  another.  The  history  of  these  petty  states  is  unknown ; 
but  they  were  finally  absorbed  in  the  dominion  of  Thebes  and  Mem- 
phis. 

The  nations  bordering  on  the  Egyptians  were,  for  the  most  part, 
barbarous  and  wandering  tribes,  whose  avarice  was  roused  by  the 
increasing  opulence  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  The  Hyk'sos,  or 
shepherd-kings,  as  they  were  called,  came  from  Arabia,  and,  after  many 
predatory  incursions,  made  themselves  masters  of  Lower  and  Middle 
Egypt. 

Egypt  became  tmited  under  one  sovereign,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
flyk'sos  :  and  the  divisions  of  the  people  into  castes,  and  of  the  country 
into  nomes,  were  permanently  fixed.  The  priestly  caste  was  subdi- 
vided into  families,  each  devoted  and  restricted  to  a  separate  temple 
and  a  particular  God.  Over  each  of  these  sacerdotal  subdivisions  a 
high-priest  presided,  whose  office  was  hereditary  ;  and  the  high-priests 
of  metropolitan  temples  enjoyed  authority  almost  equal  to  that  of  kings. 
And  their  influence  was  greatly  strengthened  by  their  monopoly  of 
every  branch  of  scieiidfic  knowledge.  They  were  not  only  priests, 
but  also  judges,  soothsayers,  physicians,  architects,  and  sculptors. 

The  warrior-caste  ranked  next  to  that  of  the  priests :  the  royai 
family  belonged  to  it.  Certain  nomes  were  assigned  to  the  support  of 
this  caste,  most  of  which  were  in  Lower  Egypt,  where  the  country 
was  most  exposed  to  attack. 

The  Egyptians  were  the  earliest  nation  that  organized  a  regulai 
army,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  whole  system  of  ancient 
warfare.  A  brief  account  of  their  military  affairs  will  therefore  illus- 
trate, not  only  their  history,  but  that  of  the  great  Asiatic  monarchies, 
and  of  the  Greeks,  during  the  heroic  ages. 

The  most  important  division  of  an  Egyptian  army  was  the  body 
of  war-char  o"*s,  used  instead  of  cavalry.  These  chariots  were  mounted 
on  two  wheels,  and  made,  especially  the  wheels,  with  great  care. 
They  were  hung  low ;  open  behind,  so  that  the  warrior  could  easily 
step  in  and  out ;  and  without  seat.  They  were  drawTi  by  two  horses 
and  generally  contained  two  warriors,  one  of  whom  managed  the  steeds 


4  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

while  the  other  fought.     Nations  were  distinguished  from  each  othe! 
by  the  shape  of  their  chariots. 

Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  breeding  and  training  of  horses,  io 
Egypt.  The  harness  and  housings  of  the  horses  were  richly  deco- 
rated ;  and  fixed  to  the  chariots,  on  the  outside,  was  a  quivei  and  bow- 
case,  decorated  also  with  extraordinary  taste  and  skill.  The  bow  waa 
the  national  weapon,  employed  both  by  infantry  and  cavalry.  No 
nation  of  antiquity  paid  so  much  attention  to  archery  as  the  Egyptians 
their  arrows  were  drawn  to  the  ear ;  and  their  bows  were  more  pow 
erful,  and  their  arrows  better  aimed,  than  those  of  other  nations.  The 
children  of  the  warrior-caste  were  trained  from  earliest  infancy  to  the 
practice  of  archery. 

The  arms  of  the  Egyptian  heavy-armed  infantry  were  a  spear,  a 
dagger,  a  short  sword,  a  helmet,  and  a  shield.  Pole-axes  and  battle- 
axes  were  occasionally  used.  Coats-of-mail  were  used  only  by  the 
principal  officers,  and  some  remarkable  warriors,  like  Goliath,  the 
champion  of  the  Philistines.  The  light  troops  were  armed  with 
swords,  battleaxes,  maces,  and  clubs. 

The  system  of  discipline  and  drill  was  very  complete.  Every  bat- 
talion had  its  standard,  with  some  symbol  or  sacred  object  represented 
on  it,  usually  the  cognizance  of  the  nome  or  tribe.  The  soldiers  were 
levied  by  conscription,  drilled  to  the  sound  of  the  trujiipet,  and  taught 
to  march  in  measured  time. 

Cavalry,  in  the  earlier  period,  were  not  employed  as  a  military  body, 
but  used  as  skirmishers,  videttes,  and  expresses,  rather  than  as  war- 
riors. The  Egyptians  generally  treated  their  captives  with  greal 
cruelty,  putting  them  to  death,  or  reducing  them  to  slavery. 

The  religion  and  government  of  Egypt  were  intimately  blended : 
there  were  prescribed  forms  and  ceremonies  for  every  important  action 
which  even  kings  dared  not  neglect.  This  gave  the  priests  paramount 
control  over  public  atfairs  and  domestic  life.  The  religion  of  the 
priests  seems  to  have  been  more  refined  than  the  gross  idolatry  of  the 
lower  classes  :  one  general  idea,  however,  pervades  the  entire  system 
— the  importance  of  agriculture  to  a  state.  Hence,  the  great  influence 
of  astronomy  in  beir  theology,  as  determining  the  times  and  seasons 
for  agricultural  operations ;  hence,  also,  the  deification  of  the  produc- 
tive powers  of  nature.  Never  were  a  people  more  dependant  on 
priestly  astrologers  than  the  Egyptians :  the  stars  were  consulted  fear 
every  undertaking,  private  or  public,  and  the  priests  alone  had  the  right 
to  consult  them  and  deliver  their  oracles.  The  belief  in  a  future  state 
influenced  every  portion  of  Egyptian  life  :  but  the  nature  of  the  creed 
is  difficult  to  be  explained.  In  fact,  there  were  two  inconsistent  creeds, 
the  belief  in  transmigration  of  souls,  confined  to  the  priestly  .caste ; 
and  the  belief  that  the  soul  will  continue  as  long  as  the  body  endures 
— whence  the  practice  of  so  carefully  embalming,  and  of  hewing  sep- 
ulchres in  the  solid  rock.  The  latter  was  the  popular  opinion  ;  hence, 
the  importance  of  the  rites  of  burial,  and  the  dread  of  the  trial  aftoT 
death,  when  a  ribunal,  under  priestly  direction,  determmed  whethei 
the  body  should  be  placed  in  the  tomb,  or  left  to  natural  decay. 

The  relative  position  of  the  lower  castes  varied  at  different  times 
but  all  trades  and  professions  were  hereditary.     It  was  probably  sup 


EGYPT  0 

posed  that  this  exckisive  dedication  of  families  to  separate  employments 
would  insure  perfection  in  the  arts  ;  and,  certainly,  the  progress  of  the 
Egj^pti^ns,  especially  in  architecture,  surpasses  that  of  any  other 
nation. 

Gymnastic  exercises  and  music  were  the  favorite  amusem.ents  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  At  their  meals,  they  used  chairs  and  tables  not 
unlike  our  own.  Women  were  treated  more  respectfully  than  in  other 
countries  of  the  East.     Great  respect  was  paid  to  age  and  rank. 

The  principal  trees  of  Egypt  were  the  sycamore,  the  fig,  the  pome- 
granate, the  peach,  the  locust-tree,  and  the  vine.  Great  care  Avas  taken 
of  the  vines.  Wine  was  used  in  great  quantities,  by  the  nobles  and 
wealthy  merchants.  Of  esculent  vegetables  growing  ~w"ld,  the  most 
remarkable  were  the  lotus,  a  kind  of  lily,  and  the  papyrus  j  the  leaves 
of  the  latter,  dried  and  prepared,  were  used  for  wiiting  upon.  The 
cultivated  vegetables  were  corn  and  pulse,  cotton,  melons,  cucumbers, 
onions,  &c. 

The  domestic  animals  of  the  Egyptians  were  the  same  as  those  of 
most  civilized  countries.  The  cat  was  held  in  particular  honor.  The 
animals  of  the  mountain  and  desert  were  the  wild  ox,  the  goat  and 
sheep,  and  the  antelope.  They  seem  to  have  obtained  camels  from 
some  foreign  country.  Among  the  amphibious  animals  of  the  Nile, 
the  crocodile  and  the  hippopotamus  deserve  to  be  noticed,  the  skin  of 
the  latter  being  regarded  as  the  best  covering  for  shields.  Wild  and 
tame  fowl  abounded  ;  the  eggs  of  geese  and  other  poultry  were  hatched 
in  oven=  heated  to  the  requisite  temperature,  a  process  still  used  by  the 
modern  Copts. 

SfiCTiON  III. — History  of  Egypt  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  Accession 

of  Psammclichus. 

FROM    B.    C.    1900    TO    B.    C.    650. 

Egypt  v/as  originally  composed  of  several  small  states,  of  which  the 
first  were  founded  in  Upper  Egypt.  Though  Thebes  was  the  most 
ancient  of  the  powerful  states,  Memphis  is  that  of  which  we  have  the 
earliest  accounts.  It  was  the  metropolis  of  a  powerful  kingdom  when 
it  was  visited  by  the  patriarch  Abraham,  and  already  the  centre  of  a 
flourishing  corn-trade.  The  court  of  the  reigning  Pharaoh  was  reg- 
ularly organized  :  the  jealousy  o '  foreigners,  especially  the  heads  of 
pastoral  tribes,  was  not  yet  apparent,  for  Abraham  was  received  with 
great  hospitality. 

In  the  interval  between  the  departure  of  Abraham  from  Egypt  and 
the  sale  of  Joseph  to  Potiphar,  the  Hyk'sos  and  other  wandering  tribes 
had  began  to  make  incursions  into  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  to  ravage 
its  fruitful  fields.  The  policy  which  induced  the  Pharaoh  who  then 
occupied  the  throne  to  grant  the  land  of  Goshen  to  the  colony  of  the 
Israelites,  was  equally  creditable  to  his  sagacity  and  generosity  ;  it  was 
a  pasturage  and  frontier  province,  forming  the  eastern  barrier  of  Egypt 
toward  Syria  and  Palestine,  the  countries  from  which  invasion  was 
most  dreaded.  By  assigning  this  district  to  Jacob  and  his  family,  it 
was  covered  in  a  short  time  by  a  numerous,  brave,  and  industrioui 
people,  giving  additional  security  and  resources  to  the  country. 


9  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

After  the  death  of  Joseph,  but  at  what  distance  of  time  thert>  is  nc 
evidence  to  determine,  a  change  of  dynasty  took  place  in  Egypt.  This 
was  probably  the  event  described  by  profane  writers  as  the  conquest 
of  Egypt  by  the  Hyk'sos,  and  consequently  the  Pharaoh  who  so  cruelly 
tyrannized  over  the  Israelites  was  not  a  native  Egyptian,  but  an  intru- 
sive foreigner.  The  motive  assigned  for  oppressing  the  Israelites  was, 
"  this  people  are  more  and  mightier  than  we" — wliich  could  hardly  be 
trie  of  the  whole  Egyptian  nation,  but  might  very  probably  be  of  a  race 
of  conquerors.  One  of  the  tasks  which  this  cruel  despot  imposed  on 
the  Israelites,  was  the  building  of  "  treasure  cities."  Among  the  cruel- 
ties inflicted  on  them,  their  being  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick  is  particularly  mentioned  :  under  the  burning  sun  of  Egj'pt,  the 
process  of  wetting,  tempering,  and  working  the  clay  previous  to  its 
being  moulded,  was  so  painful  and  unwholesome  that  it  ■'vas  usually  the 
work  of  slaves  and  captives.  But  when  the  Pharaoh  found  that  the 
Israelites  still  continued  to  "  multiply  and  wax  very  mighty,"  he  had 
recourse  to  the  barbarous  expedient  of  extermination,  and  ordered  that 
all  the  male  children  should  be  destroyed.  Moses  was  saved  from  the 
general  slaughter  and  educated  at  the  Egyptian  court ;  after  which, 
though  the  fact  is  not  expressly  stated,  the  cruel  edict  appears  to  have 
fallen  into  disuse.  Moses  never  forgot  his  parentage  and  nation  ;  prob- 
ably the  courtiers  of  Pharaoh  failed  not  to  remind  him  that  he  belonged 
to  a  degraded  caste. 

Having  been  compelled  to  quit  Egypt  for  having  slain  one  of  the  op- 
pressors, Moses  sought  shelter  in  the  land  of  Midian,  where  Jehovah 
appeared  to  him,  and  commanded  him  to  achieve  the  deliverance  of 
His  chosen  people,  investing  him  with  the  miraculous  powers  neces- 
sary for  so  difiicult  an  object.  The  reigning  Pharaoh  refused  to  part 
with  so  valuable  a  race  of  slaves,  and  his  obstinacy  was  punished  with 
ten  dreadful  plagues.  The  smiting  of  the  first-born  was  the  consum- 
mation of  these  fearful  judgments :  Pharaoh  and  his  subjects  hasied 
to  send  the  Israelites  away,  and  they  quitted  the  land  of  Egypt.  Av 
arice  induced  the  Pharaoh  to  pursue  them  with  a  mighty  army ;  but 
God  opened  a  passage  for  the  Israelites  through  the  Red  sea,  while 
the  Egyptian  host,  attempting  to  pursue  them,  were  overwhelmed  with 
the  returning  waters. 

This  calamity  (b.  c.  1491)  greatly  weakened  the  power  of  th 
Hyk'sos,  already  menaced  by  the  increasing  strength  of  the  Theban 
monarchy.  Previous  to  this,  we  have  scarcely  any  probable  account 
of  the  names  and  ages  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  except  that  Menes  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  and  Osirtesen  I.  the 
Pharaoh  who  received  Joseph.  But  henceforth  we  are  able  to  deter- 
mine with  probability  some  general  epochs  by  comparing  the  evidence 
of  the  monuments  with  that  of  the  historians.  To  this  period  belong 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties  of  Manetho,  the  founders  of 
the  most  important  monuments  of  Upper  Egypt.  In  the  reign  of  Am'e- 
noph  I.,  the  Thebans  extended  their  conquests  to  the  south,  and  seized 
on  part  of  Nubia.  Crude  brick  arches  were  constructed  at  this  period 
(b.  c.  1540)  and  glass  was  soon  after  brought  into  use.  Under  the 
fourth  king  of  this  dynasty,  Thutmosis,  or  Thothmes  III.,  the  children 
of  Israel  departed  frjm  Egypt,  and  the  Theban  monarch  fucceeded  in 


EGYPT. 

expelling  the  Hyk'sos— greatly  weakened  by  the  destruction  of  theii 
best  warriors  in  the  Red  sea— from  the  greater  part  of  the  country, 
and  shutting  them  up  in  their  fortresses.  Their  great  stronghold  was 
taken  by  his  son  and  successor,  Thoth'mes  IV. ;  and  the  shepherd- 
kings  surrendered  on  condition  of  being  allowed  to  withdraw  into  Syria. 
The  intimate  connexion  between  these  two  events — the  Exodus  of  the 
Israelites,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyk'sos— have  led  to  their  being 
confounded  together.  The  next  remarkable  monarch  was  Am'enoph 
III.,  who  reigned  conjointly  with  his  brother;  but,  soon  becoming 
weary  of  divided  empire,  he  expelled  his  partner.  The  dethroned 
brother  was  probably  the  Dan-'aus*  of  the  Greeks,  who,  leaving  Egypt 
with  his  partisans,  settled  in  Ar'gos,  of  which  he  became  king  (b.  c. 
1430).  The  pretended  vocal  statue  of  Mem'non  was  erected  in  honoi 
of  Am'enoph  ;  and  in  his  reign  the  building  of  the  great  temples  seems 
to  have  been  commenced.  He  annexed  the  greater  part  of  Nubia  to 
his  dominions.  Among  his  successors  the  name  of  Rame''ses  is  the 
most  distinguished.  It  was  borne  by  four  sovereigns;  two  in  the 
eighteenth,  and  two  in  the  nineteenth  dynasty.  The  first  was  expelled 
by  his  brother,  and  is  by  some  identified  with  Dan'aus :  the  second, 
called  Mi-Am'mon,  "  he  who  loves  Am'mon,"  was  the  founder  of  the 
palace  of  Medinet  Abu  at  Thebes ;  and  from  the  sculptures  on  its 
walls,  he  appears  to  have  been  a  warrior  and  conqueror. 

Am'enoph  IV.  was  the  last  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  In  his  un- 
fortunate reign  the  Hyk^sos  renewed  their  invasions ;  and  the  king, 
confiding  his  son,  a  child  of  five  years  old,  to  the  care  of  a  friend,  fled 
into  Ethiopia,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years  an  exile.  Daring  this 
period  the  Hyk'sos  were  guilty  of  the  most  wanton  excesses  ;  for  "  they 
not  only  set  fire  to  the  cities  and  villages,  but  committed  every  kind  of 
sacrilege,  and  destroyed  the  images  of  the  gods,  and  roasted  and  fed 
upon  those  sacred  animals  that  were  worshipped ;  and  having  com- 
pelled the  priests  and  prophets  to  kill  and  sacrifice  them,  they  cast 
them  naked  out  of  the  country."!  Amen'ophis  at  length,  aided  by  an 
Ethiopian  army,  and  supported  by  his  gallant  son,  expelled  the  shep- 
herd-kings, and  restored  the  prosperity  of  his  country. 

Rame'ses  the  Great,  called  also  Sethos  or  Sesos'tris,:|  is  the  most 
jelebrated  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  The  conquests  attributed  to  him 
are  so  mighty,  that  he  has  been  by  some  regarded  as  merely  a  sym- 
bolical being  ;  but  from  the  evidence  of  the  monuments,  he  appears  to 
be  undoubtedly  an  historical  personage.  It  is  indeed  doubtful  whether 
the  Ram'eses  who  founded  Medinet  Abu,  or  the  son  of  Am'enoph,  be 
the  great  conqueror  who  carried  his  arms  into  Bac'tria  in  the  east,  and 
Thrace  in  the  west,  and  before  whose  throne  captives  from  the  frozen 
Cau'casus  mingled  with  the  sable  tribes  from  the  extreme  south  of 
Ethiopia :  but  the  existence  of  this  conqueror,  his  daring  hunts  of  the 
lion  in  the  desert  while  a  youth,  his  aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyk'sos, 
his  extensive  conquests,  and  the  vast  treasures  he  collected  from  the 
vanquished  nations,  are  satisfactorily  proved  by  the  sculptured  history 
of  his  exploits  on  the  walls  of  the  buildings  he  erected  or  enlarged. 

*  Others  assign  Dan'aus  to  a  later  period. 

fManetho,  as  quoted  by  Joscphus. 

{  Wilkinson  identiiies  Rame'ses  II.  with  Sesos'tris. 


8  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Havinff  subdued  the  mountainous  districts  east  of  Egypt,  and  part  of 
tlie  Arabian  peninsula,  he  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  war -galleys  to  scour  the 
Indian  seas.  The  naval  engagements  sculptured  on  iiit)  walls  of  Me- 
dinet  Abu  and  Karnac  fully  support  the  account  of  these  expeditions 
given  by  the  historians,  and  show  that  they  were  extended  to  the 
western  coast  of  Hindost'an.  Ethiopia  was  subdued,  and  compelled  to 
pay  a  tribute  of  ebony,  gold,  and  elephants'  teeth.  The  battle,  the  vic- 
tory, the  oflering  of  the  booty  and  tribute,  are  represented  on  the  mon- 
imients  at  Kalabshe,  in  Lower  Nubia.  His  campaigns  in  Asia  and 
Europe  were  equally  remarkable.  Northward  he  subdued  Syria,  An- 
atolia, and  part  of  Thrace  ;  eastward  he  is  said  to  have  advanced  as  far 
as  Bac'tria  and  India.  There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  of  his  ex- 
ploits in  the  neighborhood  of  Assy'ria  and  the  Euphrates  ;  for  they  are 
represented  on  the  sculptures  of  the  building  called  the  tomb  of  Osy- 
man'dyas,  but  wliich  should  rather  be  called  the  temple-palace  of  King 
Ram'eses. 

It  is  singular  that  no  record  of  such  a  conqueror  should  be  found  in 
the  Scriptures ;  for  he  must  have  subdued  the  land  of  Canaan  and 
Syria,  countries  which  were  always  coveted  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt. 
Mr.  Milman  very  plausibly  argues  that  the  conquests  of  Sesos'tris  took 
place  while  the  Israelites  were  wandering  in  the  desert,  and  that  this 
providential  arrangement  was  intended  to  facilitate  the  conquest  of  the 
promised  land.  There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  some  king  of 
Egypt  performed  many  of  the  exploits  attributed  to  Sesos'tris,  though  it 
is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact  period  in  which  he  flourished. 

Tire  successors  of  Sesos^tris  seem  to  have  sunk  into  the  usual  in- 
dolence of  oriental  monarchs.  Their  history,  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years,  presents  little  more  than  a  catalogue  of  names,  imtil  we  come  to 
Sesouchis,  the  Shfshak  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  who  was  the  first  mon- 
arch of  the  twenty-second  dynasty.  In  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam,  the  foolish  and  wicked  son  of  Solomon  (b.  :;.  970),  Shishak 
made  war  against  Palestine,  and  pillaged  Jerusalem.  His  army  con- 
sisted of  twelve  hundred  chariots,  sixty  thousand  horsemen,  and  an  in- 
numerable body  of  infantry,  consisting  not  only  of  Egyptians,  but  also 
of  Libyans,  Ethiopians,  and  Troglody'tes.  His  empire  consequently 
extended  beyond  the  bounds  of  Egypt,  and  included  a  large  portion  of 
southern  and  western  Africa. 

In  the  next  century  the  Egyptian  monarchy  declined  rapidly,  and  the 
country  was  subjugated  by  Sab'aco,  a  foreign  conqueror  from  Ethiopia. 
The  history  of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter. 

Under  Tirhakah,  the  last  of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty,  a  priest  named 
Sethos,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  usurped  the  government  of  Lower 
Egypt.  He  not  only  neglected  the  caste  of  warriors,  but  deprived 
them  of  their  privileges  and  lands ;  at  which  they  were  so  incensed, 
that  they  refused  to  bear  arms  in  his  defence.  Sennach'erib,  king  of 
Assyria,  prepared  to  invade  Egypt  with  a  very  powerful  army,  and 
advanced  to  Pelusium  (b.  c.  713).  Sethos,  deserted  by  the  military 
caste,  armed  the  laborers  and  artificers,  and  with  this  undisciplined  host 
inarched  to  meet  the  invader.  A  pestilence  in  the  Assyrian  camp 
saved  Egypt  from  ruin,  and  Sennach'erib  returned  to  meet  fi-esh  mis- 
fortunes at  Jerusalem.  When  Sethos  died,  twelve  princes,  or  heads 
of  nomes,  shared  the  kingdom  among  them ;   but  soon  quarrelling  about 


EGYPT 


ihe  limits  of  their  respective  principalities,  they  engaged  hi  mutual  war, 
and  drove  one  of  their  number,  Psammet'ichus,  prince  of  Sais,  mto 
exile.  Psammet'ichUi  levied  an  army  of  Greek  and  Carian  mercen- 
aries, most  of  whom  appear  to  have  been  pirates  ;  and  having  overcome 
all  his  rivals,  once  more  united  all  Egypt  into  a  single  monarchy,  of 
which  Mem'phis  ranked  as  the  capital,  though  Sais  was  usually  the 
seat  of  government.  The  intercourse  with  the  nations  in  the  eastP"n 
Mediterranean  was  greatly  extended  during  the  reign  of  Psamm  - 
ichus:  many  Greeks  settled  in  the  Egyptian  seaports;  and  a  new 
caste  of  interpreters  and  brokers  was  formed  to  facilitate  commerce 
But  the  patronage  of  foreigners,  and  the  preference  that  ^sammet'ichus 
showed  for  the  mercenaries  to  whom  he  owed  his  crowi.,  so  disgusted 
the  caste  of  warriors,  that  the  whole  body  emigrated  from  their  country, 
and  setttled  in  Ethiopia  (b.  c.  650). 

Section  lY.— History  of  Egyjd  from  the  Reign  of  Psaminetichus  to  its 

Subjugation  by  Cambyses. 

FJIOM    B.C.  G50    TO    B.C.  525. 

The  accession  of  Psammet'ichus  was  followed  by  a  complete  revo- 
lution in  the  ancient  policy  of  Egypt ;  foreign  auxiliaries  performed 
the  duties  of  the  warrior  caste ;  plans  of  permanent  conquests  in  Syria 
succeeded  to  the  predatory  expeditions  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs  ;  and 
the  political  influence  of  the  priesthood  rapidly  declined,  as  new 
opinions  were  imported  from  abroad,  and  new  institutions  rendered 
necessary  by  increasing  commerce.  For  several  reigns,  the  great 
object  of  Egyptian  policy  was  to  obtain  possession  of  the  commercial 
cities  of  Syria  and  Phcem'cia.  Psammet'ichus  led  the  way  by  laying 
siege  to  Azotus,  a  frontier  town  of  Syria— persevering  m  successive 
attacks  for  twenty-nine  years,  until  he  accomplished  his  object. 

Nechus,  called  in  Scripture  Pharaoh-Necho,  succeeded  his  father 
Psammet'ichus  (b.c.  616),  and  became  a  powerful  prince,  both  by  land 
and  sea.  He  built  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  seas, 
and  attempted  to  unite  them  by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  of 
Suez ;  an  enterprise  subsequently  completed  by  Darius  Hystaspes.* 
The  increasing  strength  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  who  had  over- 
thrown the  ancient  empire  of  Assj-ria,  justly  alarmed  Ndcho.  He  led 
an  army  against  the  king  of  Assyria,  directing  his  march  toward  the 
Euphrates,  but  was  checked  by  the  interference  of  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah,  who  tried  to  prevent  him  from  besieging  Car'chemish  or  Circe- 
sium,  but  was  defeated  and  slain.f  Necho,  having  reached  the 
Euphrates,  captured  the  important  city  of  Car'chemish,  or  Circesmm, 
which  he  garrisoned.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he  became  master  of 
Jerusalem,  led  its  monarch,  Jehoahaz,  away  captive,  and  placed 
Jehoiakim  upon  the  throne. 

The  Chaldean  dynasty  in  Bab'ylon  rose  into  power  on  the  nuns  of 

•  The  navigation  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Red  sea  is  so  very  dangeroiu 
that  this  canal  was  never  of  much  use.     Vessels  usually  stopped  at  M/os  Hot 
BOS,  now  Cosseir,  whence  there  was  a  good  caravan-road  to  the  Nile. 

t  2  Chron.  rxxv.  21. 


10 


ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


roe  Assyrian  empire.  NebucliaJiiez'zar,  its  mightiest  monarcli,  resolved 
on  the  conquest  of  western  Asia ;  and  one  of  his  earliest  efforts  was 
the  expulsion  of  the  Egyptians  from  Car'chemish.  Necho  tried  to 
check  the  progress  of  this  formidable  opponent ;  but  he  was  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  stripped  of  all  his  possessions  in  Syria  and 
Judea,  to  tiie  very  walls  of  Pelusium.  Jeremiah's  prophetic  descrip- 
tion of  this  important  battle  has  all  the  minute  accuracy  of  history.* 

During  his  wars  in  Syria,  Necho  did  not  neglect  the  improvement 
of  navigation.  A  Phoenician  fleet,  equipped  at  his  expense,  sailed 
down  the  Red  sea,  passed  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Man'deb,  and,  coasting 
the  African  continent,  discovered  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  two  thousand  years  before  the  rediscovery  of  it  by  Diaz  and 
Vasco  de  Gama.  The  expedition  returned  to  Egypt  through  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  Mediterranean,  after 
an  absence  of  three  years. 

During  the  reign  of  Psam'mis,  the  son  of  Necho,  a  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance occurred  (b.c.  600),  tending  to  prove  the  ancient  connexion 
between  the  institutions  of  Greece  and  Egypt,  which  has  been  denied 
by  the  modern  historians  of  the  German  school.  An  embassy  was 
sent  from  the  city  of  E'lis  to  obtain  directions  for  the  management  of 
the  Olympic  games ;  and  the  regulations  suggested  by  the  Egyptian 
priests  were  implicitly  obeyed. 

A'pries,  the  Pharaoh-Hoph'ra  of  Scripture,  immediately  after  his 
accession  (b.c.  594),  attacked  the  Phoenician  states,  and  conquered 
Sidon.  He  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Zedekiah,  king  of  Judah, 
promising  to  aid  him  in  his  revolt  against  Nebuchadnez'zar.  A'pries, 
in  fulfilment  of  his  engagement,  led  an  army  into  Judea,  and  Nebuchad- 
nez^'zar,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  his  approach,  broke  up  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  and  hastened  to  meet  liim :  but  the  Egyptians  were 
afraid  to  encounter  the  Babylonian  forces,  and  retired,  without  striking 
a  blow,  to  their  own  country,  leaving  their  allies  to  bear  the  brunt  of 
Nebuchadnez^zar's  vengeance.  For  this  act  of  perfidy,  God,  by  the 
mouth  of  his  prophet  Ezekiel,t  denounced  severe  vengeance  on  the 
Egyptians  and  their  sovereign.  Not  less  distinct  is  the  prophecy  of 
Jeremiah :  "  Behold,  I  will  give  Pharaoh-Hoph''ra,  king  of  Egypt,  into 
the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  into  the  hand  of  them  that  seek  h'.s  life  ; 
as  I  gave  Zedekiah,  king  of  Judah,  into  the  hand  of  Nebuchadnez^zar, 
his  enemy,  and  that  sought  his  life."| 

The  accomplishment  followed  close  upon  the  latter  prediction.  A 
Grecian  colony,  established  at  Gyrene,  being  strengthened  by  fresh 
bodies  of  their  countrymen,  under  their  third  king,  Bat'tus  the  Happy, 
attacked  the  neighboring  Libyans,  and  seized  their  land.  An'dican, 
one  of  the  dispossessed  princes,  applied  for  aid  to  Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, 
who  sent  a  large  army  to  liis  relief.  The  Egyptians  were  routed  with 
great  slaughter  by  the  Cyreneans ;  and  the  fugitives,  to  excuse  their 
defeat,  averred  that  they  had  been  designedly  betrayed  by  their  mon- 
arch. This  calumny  was  the  pretext  for  a  universal  revolt.  After  a 
long  civil  war,  of  which  Nebuchadnez^zar  took  advantage  to  devastate 
Lower  Egypt,  A^pries  was  detlironed  by  Ama'sis,  and  strangled  in 
prison  (b.c.  569). 

•  Jeremiah  xlvi.  1-10.  f  Ezekiel  xxix.  8-15.  }  Jeremiat  xhv.  30. 


EGYPT.  11 

The  usurper  waa-  a  man  of  mean  birth,  but  his  great  abilities  enabled 
nim  to  overcome  the  Egyptian  prejudice  of  caste,  especially  as  he  had 
the  wisdom  to  conciliate  the  affection  of  the  priesthood.  Following 
the  policy  of  his  predecessors,  he  tried  to  establish  his  supremacy  in 
western  Asia,  on  the  decline  of  the  Babylonian  power,  and  entered 
into  close  alliance  with  Crce'sus  against  Cy'rus.  He  was  defeated, 
and  compellled  to  become  tributary  to  the  conqueror.  On  the  death  of 
Cyrus,  he  attempted  to  assert  his  independence,  and  thus  provoked  the 
rage  of  Camby'ses,  that  monarch's  successor.  At  the  very  moment 
when  the  Persian  invaders  were  approaching,  Ama'sis  quarrelled  with 
Phanes,  the  commander  of  the  Greek  mercenaries,  and  his  ally.  Poly' 
crates,  the  king  of  Samos,  both  of  whom  tendered  their  aid  to 
Camby'ses.  But  before  the  evil  hour  of  the  Persian  invasion  arrived, 
Ama'sis  died  (b.c.  525),  bequeathing  to  his  son  Psammeni'tus  a  king- 
domtorn  by  internal  dissensions,  and  menaced  by  a  formidable  enemy. 

Scarcely  had  Psammeni'tus  ascended  the  throne,  when  Camby'ses 
appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  Egypt,  and  laid  siege  to  Peliisiura.  Tliis 
important  garrison  was  taken,  after  a  very  weak  resistance ;  and  the 
Persians  advanced  into  the  open  country.  Psammeni'tus  led  an  army, 
chiefly  composed  of  mercenaries,  against  them ;  but  was  so  completely 
overthrown,  that  he  was  no  longer  able  to  save  his  capital.  Camby'ses 
provoked  by  the  murder  of  one  of  his  ambassadors,  put  to  death  the 
chief  of  the  Egyptian  nobles,  and  reduced  their  wives  and  children  tc 
slavery.  He  was  at  first  inclined  to  spare  the  life  of  the  unfortunate 
king ;  but  subsequently  learning  that  he  had  incautiously  expressed  a 
deeire  for  revenge,  the  cruel  conqueror  condemned  him  to  drink 
poison, 

Camby'ses  was  the  deadly  enemy  of  the  religion  and  the  priestly 
caste  of  the  Egyptians :  he  slew  their  sacred  animals,  destroyed  their 
idols,  scourged  their  priests  as  slaves,  and  pillaged  their  temples. 

The  Egyptians,  instigated  by  the  heads  of  the  sacerdotal  caste, 
frequently  rebelled  against  the  Persians,  but  were  never  able  to  estab- 
lish their  independence ;  these  insurrections  were  punished  with  the 
most  relentless  severity,  and  thus  the  awful  prophecy  of  Ezeiiel  was 
fulfilled  to  the  letter.*  , 

Section  V. — Egyptian  Manufactures  and  Commerce. 

The  monuments  show  us  that  the  progress  of  the  Egj-ptians  in  the 
mechanical  arts  was  much  greater  than  had  been  usually  supposed,  and 
that  an  accurate  examination  of  their  machinery  might  suggest  useful 
hints  for  the  present  day. 

Weaving  was  an  important  branch  of  industry,  the  cotton  and  flax 
being  indigenous.  It  is  uncertain  whether  silk  was  used.  The  stuffs 
were  woven  in  large  manufactories,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
priests,  who  had  a  monopoly  of  all  the  cloths  used  for  sacred  purposes, 
especially  for  the  mummies.  These  stuffs  were  generally  died  in  the 
wool,  and  many  of  them  embroidered  with  thread  of  gold  and  silver 
wire ;  Fome  of  them  are  striped,  others  stained  or  flowered,  and  the 

•  Ezek.  XXX.  13-19.  . 


12  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

colors  of  all  exhibit  those  dazzling  hues  of  the  East,  which  we  are 
unable  to  rival  in  Europe. 

The  manufactures  in  metal  rank  next  in  importance.  Iron  appears 
to  have  been  but  little  known :  nearly  all  the  implements  not  made  of 
gold  or  silver,  were,  it  would  seem,  either  copper  or  brass.  The 
workmansliip  of  the  Egyptians,  both  in  metal  and  wood,  was  superior 
to  that  of  any  other  ancient  nation.  The  forms  of  their  couches, 
harps,  &c.,  the  elegance  of  the  spindles  and  work-baskets  of  the 
ladies,  inspire  a  high  idea  of  the  refinement  of  their  domestic  life. 

Egypt  produced  excellent  clay  for  pottery,  and  earthen  ware  was 
used,  not  only  for  domestic  purposes,  but  for  preserving  the  mummies 
of  the  sacred  animals.  Their  vases,  in  the  indescribable  variety  ^nd 
beauty  of  their  shapes,  rival  the  choicest  specimens  of  Grecian  or 
Etruscan  art. 

Ship-building  did  not  become  common  in  Egypt,  until  its  rulers 
became  masters  of  the  Phoenician  forests ;  but  they  manufactured 
vessels  of  burden  for  navigating  the  Nile. 

The  Theb'aid  was  the  central  point  of  trade  between  southern  Asia 
and  the  western  regions,  and  between  Ethiopia  and  northern  Africa. 
Besides  the  advantages  of  its  position,  the  most  ancient  and  productive 
gold  mines  in  the  world  were  in  its  neighborhood.  From  Ethiopia 
and  the  Negro  countries  were  brought  gold,  ivory,  ebony,  skins,  and 
slaves ;  from  Arabia,  incense,  and  from  India,  spices ;  and  these  were 
sold  to  the  Greek  and  P))nenician  merchants.  The  native  commodities 
exported  were  principal iv  corn  and  cloths:  the  corn-trade  must  have 
been  particularly  valuabJo  for  Egypt  Avas  regarded  as  the  granary  of 
the  Eijacent  countries 


THE  ETHTOPLANa 


13 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  ETHIOPIANS. 

Section  I  — Geographical  Outline.     Natural  History. 

Thk  eastern  districts  above  the  Nile,  now  called  Nubia  and  Sennaar 
have  been  possessed  from  a  remote  age  by  two  diflerent  races  the 
Ethiopian  and  the  Arabian,  which  are  even  now  but  partially  blended. 
The  country  is  'ull  of  historical  monuments,  chiefly  erected  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile.  There  were,  in  these  countries  above  Egypt,  all  the  grada- 
tions from  the  complete  savage  to  the  hunting  and  fishing  tribes,  and 
from  them  to  the  wandering  herdsman  and  sh':;pherd ;  but  there  was 
also  a  civilized  Ethiopian  people,  dwelling  in  cities,  possessing  a  gov- 
ernment and  laws,  acquainted  with  the  use  of  lueroglyphics,  the  fame 
of  whose  progress  in  knowledge  and  the  social  arts  had,  in  the  earliest 
ages,  spread  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth. 

The  Nile,  before  its  confluence  with  the  Astab'oras  (Mugrum),  runs 
through  a  very  irregular  valley  formed  by  two  chains  of  hills,  which 
sometimes  retire  back,  and  sometimes  advance  to  the  very  margin  of 
the  river.  The  soil  of  this  valley  was  once  as  fertile  as  the  richest 
part  of  Egypt,  and  where  protected,  it  still  continues  so ;  but  the  hills 
on  both  sides  are  bordered  by  sandy  deserts,  against  which  they  aflford 
but  a  scanty  protection.  The  Nubian  valley  below  the  junction  of  the 
Nile  and  the  Astab'oras  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  subject  tothe 
Ethiopians  of  Mer-'oe  and  sometimes  to  the  Egyptians.  The  naviga- 
tion of  the  Nile  is  here  impeded  by  the  Avindings  of  the  river,  and  by 
the  intervention  of  cataracts  and  rapids ;  so  that  intercourse  is  more 
generally  maintained  by  caravans  than  by  boats.  At  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley,  the  river  spreads  itself,  and  encloses  a  number  of 
f2rtile  islands.  Along  the  whole  course  of  the  Nubian  valley  is  a  suc- 
cession of  stnpendous  monuments,  rivalling  those  of  Thebes  in  beauty, 
and  exceeding  them  in  sublimity. 

The  productions  of  the  Ethiopian  and  Nubian  valleys  do  not  difler 
materially  from  those  of  Egypt.  The  island  of  Mer'oe  as  it  was  called 
from  being  nearly  surrounded  with  rivers,  possessed  an  abundance  of 
camels,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  were  little  used  in  Egj-pt ;  but_  the 
ivorj'  ebony,  and  spices,  which  the  Ethiopians  sent  down  the  river, 
were  probably  procured  by  traflic  with  the  interior  of  Africa.  Mer'oe 
had  better  harbors  for  Indian  commerce  than  Egypt :  not  only  were 
her  ports  on  the  Red  sea  superior,  but  the  caravan-routes  to  them  were 
shorter,  and  the  dangerous  part  of  the  navigation  of  that  sea  was  wholly 
avoided. 

The  wild  tracts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mer'oe  are  tenanted  by  an- 
imals whose  chase  aflrorlt)d  employment  to  the  ancient,  as  it  does  now 


4  ANCIENT  HISTORf. 

to  the  modem  hunting  tribes ;  especially  that  singvilar  creatiire  the 
giraffe,  or  camelopard,  so  recently  known  in  Europe.  The  elephant  is 
found  in  Abyssinia,  not  far  from  the  southern  confines  of  the  state  of 
Mer^oe 

Section  II. — History  of  the  Ethiopians. 

The  early  history  of  Meroe  is  involved  in  impenetrable  obscurity' 
Its  monuments  bear  evident  marks  of  being  the  models  for  the  wondrous 
edifices  of  Egypt ;  but,  shut  out  from  all  intercourse  with  civilized  na- 
tions by  the  intervention  of  the  Egyptians,  it  is  oaly  when  they  were 
invaded,  or  became  invaders,  that  we  can  trace  the  history  of  the  Ethi- 
opians. It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  several  of  the  Egyptian 
monarchs  carried  their  arms  into  Ethiopia,  and  became  for  a  time  mas- 
ters of  the  country.  In  the  eleventh  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
the  Assyrian  heroine  Semir'amis  is  reported  to  have  attempted  its  con- 
quest ;  but  there  is  some  doubt  of  the  truth  of  this,  as  indeed  of  many 
other  exploits  attributed  to  this  wonderful  queen.  But  we  have  certain 
information  of  the  Ethiopians  being  a  powerful  nation  (b.  c.  971)  when 
they  assisted  Shishak  in  his  war  against  Judaea  "  with  very  many 
chariots  and  horsemen."  Sixteen  years  after  this,  we  have  an  account 
of  Judaea  being  again  invaded  by  an  army  of  a  million  Etliiopians,  vm- 
accompanied  by  any  Egyptian  force.*  From  the  Scripture  narrative, 
it  appears  that  the  Ethiopians  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
art  of  war,  and  were  masters  of  the  navigation  of  the  Red  sea,  and 
at  least  a  part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  The  kingdom  must  have  been 
also  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  when  it  was  able  to  bear  the  cost 
of  so  vast  and  distant  an  expedition. 

The  Ethiopian  power  gradually  increased  until  its  monarchs  were 
enabled  to  conquer  Egypt,  where  three  of  them  reigned  in  succession 
Sab'bakon,  Sev^echus,  and  Tar'akus,  the  Tirhakah  of  Scripture."! 
Sev'echus,  called  So  in  Scripture,  was  so  powerful  a  monarch,  that 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  revolted  against  the  Assyrians,  relying  on  his 
assistance  ;  \  but  was  not  supported  by  his  ally.  This,  indeed,  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  ;  for  "  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Hoshea,  the  king  of  Assyria  took  Samaria,  and  carried  Israel 
away  into  Assyria,"  as  a  punishment  for  unsuccessful  rebellion.  Tir- 
hakah was  a  more  warlike  prince  :  he  led  an  army  against  Sennach'- 
erib,  kin^  of  Assyria,^  then  besieging  Jerusalem ;  and  the  Egyptian 
traditions,  preserved  in  the  age  of  Herod'otus,  give  an  accurate  account 
of  the  providential  interposition  by  which  the  pride  of  the  Assyrians 
was  humbled. 

In  the  reign  of  Psammet'ichus,  the  entire  warrior-caste  of  the  Egyp- 
tians migrated  to  Ethiopia,  and  were  located  at  the  extreme  southern 
frontier  of  the  kingdom.  These  colonists  instructed  the  Ethiopians  in 
the  recent  improvements  made  in  the  art  of  war,  and  prepared  them  for 
resisting  the  formidable  invasion  of  Camby'ses. 

•2  Chron.  xiv.  8-13, 

t  Mr.  Hawkins,  in  his  recent  work  on  Meroe,  identifies  Tirhakah  with  the  pnest 
Sethos,  on  what  we  deem  very  insufficient  grounds. 

X  2  Kings,  xvii.  4.  §  2  Kings,  xix.  9, 


THE  ETHIOPIANS.  Id 

Scarcely  had  the  Persian  dynasty  been  established  in  Egypt,  when 
Camby'ses  set  out  to  invade  Ethiopia,  without  preparing  any  store  of 
provisions,  apparently  ignorant  of  the  deserts  through  which  it  waa 
necessary  for  him  to  pass.  Before  he  had  gone  over  a  fifth  part  of  the 
route  from  Thebes,  the  want  of  provisions  was  felt ;  yet  he  madly  de- 
termined to  proceed.  The  soldiers  fed  on  grass,  as  long  as  any  could 
be  found ;  but  at  length,  when  they  reached  the  deserts,  so  dreadful 
was  the  famine,  that  they  were  obliged  to  cast  lots,  that  one  out  of 
every  ten  might  be  eaten  by  his  comrades. 

It  is  said  that  the  king  of  Ethiopia  was  always  elected  from  the 
priestly  caste ;  and  there  was  a  strange  custom  for  the  electors,  when 
weary  of  their  sovereign,  to  send  him  a  courier  with  orders  to  die. 
Ergam'enes  was  the  first  monarch  w^ho  ventured  to  resist  this  absurd 
custom  :  he  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  second  Ptol'emy,  and  was  instruct- 
ed in  Grecian  philosophy.  So  far  from  yieldmg,  he  marched  against 
the  fortress  of  the  priests,  massacred  most  of  them,  and  instituted  a 
new  religion. 

Queens  frequently  ruled  in  Ethiopia :  one  named  Candace  made  war 
on  Augus'tus  Cae'sar  about  twenty  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
though  defeated  by  the  superior  discipline  of  the  Romans,  obtained 
peace  on  very  favorable  conditions.  During  the  reign  of  another  of  the 
same  name,  we  find  that  the  Jewish  religion  was  prevalent  in  Mer'oe, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  change  made  by  Ergam'enes  ;  for  the 
queen's  confidential  adviser  went  to  worship  at  Jerusalem,  and  on  his 
return  (a.  d.  53)  was  converted  by  St.  Philip,*  and  became  the  means 
of  introducing  Christianity  into  Ethiopia. 

These  are  the  principal  historical  facts  that  can  now  be  ascertained 
respecting  the  ancient  and  once  powerful  state  of  Mer'oe,which  has  now 
sunk  into  the  general  mass  of  African  barbarism. 

Section  III. — Arts,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures  of  Mer'oe. 

The  pyramids  of  Mer'oe,  though  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  Middle 
Egypt,  are  said  to  surpass  them  in  architectural  beauty,  and  the  sep- 
ulchres evince  the  greatest  purity  of  taste.  But  the  most  important 
and  striking  proof  of  the  progress  of  the  Ethiopians  in  the  art  of  build- 
ing, is  their  knowledge  and  employment  of  the  arch.  Mr.  Hoskins  has 
stated  that  these  pyramids  are  of  superior  antiquity  to  those  of  Egypt. 

The  Ethiopian  vases  depicted  on  the  monuments,  though  not  richly 
ornamented,  display  a  taste  and  elegance  of  form  that  has  never  been 
surpassed.  In  sculpture  and  coloring,  the  edifices  of  Mer'oe,  though 
not  so  profusely  adorned,  rival  the  choicest  specimens  of  Egyptian  art. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  favorable  position  of  Mer'oe  for  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  India  and  the  interior  of  Africa :  it  was  the 
entrepot  of  trade  between  the  north  and  south,  between  the  east  and 
west,  while  its  fertile  soil  enabled  the  Ethiopians  to  purchase  foreig"n 
luxuries  with  native  productions.  It  does  not  appear  that  fabrics  were 
woven  in  Mer'oe  so  extensively  as  in  Egypt;  l^t  the  manufactures  of 
metal  must  hava  been  at  least  as  flourishing.  But  Mer'oe  owed  its 
greatness  less  to  the  produce  of  its  soil  or  its  factories,  than  to  its  po- 

•Acts  vii.  33. 


16  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

sitioi.  on  the  intersection  of  the  leading  caravan-routes  of  ancient  com 
merce.  The  great  changes  in  these  lines  of  trade,  the  devastations  of 
successive  conquerors  and  revolutions,  the  fanaticism  of  the  Sar'acens, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  fertile  soil  by  the  encroachments  of  ihe 
moving  sands  from  the  desert,  are  causes  sufficient  for  the  ruin  of  such 
a  powerful  empire.  Its  decline,  however,  was  probably  accelerated  oy 
the  pressure  of  the  nomad  hordes,  who  took  advantage  of  its  weakness 
to  olunder  its  defenceless  citizens. 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  1? 


CHAPTER  III. 
BABYLONIA   AND    ASSYRIA. 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline. — Natural  History. 

Babylonia,  or  Chaldae'a.  was  situated  between  two  great  riverw,  the 
Eaphrales  on  the  west,  and  the  Tigris  on  the  east.  The  bed  of"  the 
Tigris  is  much  lower  than  that  of  the  Euphrates,  its  channel  much 
deeper,  and  the  banks  so  precipitous,  that  it  very  rarely  overflows 
them. 

Babylonia  was  properly  the  country  on  the  lower  Euphrates  :  north 
of  it  were  the  extensive  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  beyond  these,  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Armenia,  supposed  by  many  writers  to  have 
been  the  first  habitation  of  the  posterity  of  Noah,  after  the  Flood. 

Beyond  the  Tigris  was  the  region  properly  called  Assyr^ia,  a  table- 
land, boimded  on  the  north  and  east  by  chains  of  mountains,  which 
have  afforded  shelter  to  plundering  nomad  tribes  from  the  remotest 
antiquity.  The  soil,  though  not  so  rich  as  that  of  Babylonia,  was 
generally  fruitful.  But  almost  ever  since  the  fall  of  the  x\ssyrian 
empire,  the  country  has  been  devastated  by  wars  between  powerful 
monarchies  and  nations ;  and  it  is  now  little  better  than  a  wilderness, 
save  that  some  patches  of  land  are  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  few  inconsiderable  towns  within  its  precincts. 

Babylonia,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Euphrates,  rivalled  the  fertil 
ity  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  :  the  soil  was  so  peculiarly  suited  foT 
corn,  that  the  husbandman's  returns  were  sometimes  three  hundred 
foM.  'ud  rarely  less  than  two  hundred  fold.  The  rich  oily  grains  of 
the  pai/icum  and  se^amum  were  produced  in  luxuriant  abundance  ;  the 
fig-tree,  the  olive,  and  the  vine,  were  wholly  wanting ;  but  there  were 
large  groves  of  palm-trc-  s  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  From  the  palms 
they  obtained  not  only  fruit,  but  wine,  sugar,  and  molasses,  as  the 
Arabs  do  at  the  present  time.  Dwarf  c}'press-trees  were  scattered 
over  the  plains ;  but  these  were  a  poor  substitute  for  other  species  of 
wood.  To  this  deficiency  of  timber  must  be  attributed  the  neglect  of 
the  river  navigation,  and  the  abandonment  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Indian  seas,  by  the  Babylonians. 

Stone  and  marble  were  even  more  rare  in  this  country  than  wood 
but  the  clay  was  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks.  These, 
whether  dried  in  the  sun,  or  burnt  in  kilns,  became  so  hard  and 
durable,  that  now,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries,  the  remains  of 
ancient  walls  preserve  the  bricks  uninjured  by  their  long  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  and  retaining  the  impression  of  the  inscriptions  in  the 
arrow-headed  character  as  perfectly  as  if  they  had  only  just  been 

2 


iS  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

raaiuifactured.  Naphtha  and  bitumen,  or  earthy  oil  and  pitch,  wer* 
produced  in  great  abundance  above  Bab  ylon,  near  the  modern  town  of 
Hit :  these  served  as  substitutes  for  mortar  or  cement ;  and  so  lasting 
w^ere  they,  that  the  layers  of  rushes  and  palm-leaves  laid  betwecjn  the 
courses  of  bricks  as  a  binding  material,  are  found  at  this  day  in  the 
ruins  of  Bab'yion,  as  perfect  as  if  a  year  had  not  elapsed  since  they 
were  put  together. 

Section  II. — Political  and  Social  Condition  of  the  Assyrians  and 

Babylonians. 

Des.  otism,  in  its  most  severe  form,  was  established  in  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  and  in  those  by  which  it  was  succeeded.  The  king's  will 
was  the  law ;  no  code  existed  to  restrict  his  judgments ;  and  even 
ancient  customs  were  set  aside  at  his  pleasure.  He  was  the  head  of 
the  church  as  well  as  the  state,  and  claimed  divine  worship.  His 
palace  was  crov/ded  with  as  many  wives  and  concubines  as  he  chose 
to  collect,  and  these  were  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  eunuchs, 
an  unfortunate  race,  first  brought  into  use  in  Assyr'ia. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  vi^hether  the  priests,  usually  called 
Chaldeans,  were  a  caste  or  an  order ;  but  it  is  most  probaljle  that,  like 
the  Egyptians,  the  Jews,  and  the  Persians,  the  Babylonians  had  an 
hereditary  priesthood.  Their  religion  was  the  kind  of  idolatry  usually 
called  Sabian ;  that  is,  they  worshipped  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the 
starry  host.  In  a  later  age,  they  added  to  this  the  worship  of  deified 
mortals,  whom  they  supposed  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
celestial  luminaries,  just  as  Eastern  monarchs  of  the  present  day  call 
themselves  "  brothers  of  the  sun  and  moon."  Their  supreme  deity 
was  named  Baal,  or  Bell,  which  signifies  Lord :  the  mixture  of  the 
astronomical  with  the  historical  character  of  the  idol  has  rendered  the 
Assyrian  mythology  complicated  and  obscure  ;  and  the  double  character 
of  their  deities  generally,  has  brought  confusion  not  only  into  mythol- 
ogy, but  history ;  for  many  of  the  fabulous  legends  respecting  Ninus 
and  Semir'amis  are  manifestly  imperfect  astronomical  theories.  Cru- 
elty and  obscenity  were  the  most  marked  attributes  of  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  idolatry ;  human  victims  were  sacrificed,  and  prostitution 
was  enjoined  as  a  religious  duty.  It  had  also  much  of  the  absurdity  that 
belongs  to  the  Brahminism  of  the  present  day  ;  monstrous  combinations 
of  forms  were  attributed  to  the  gods ;  their  idols  had  many  heads,  and 
jumbled  the  limbs  of  men  and  the  members  of  animals  together ; 
these  had  probably  at  first  a  symbolic  meaning,  which  the  priests  pre- 
served by  tradition,  but  which  was  carefully  concealed  from  the  vulgar 
herd. 

The  condition  of  women  was  more  degraded  in  Bab'ylon  than  in  any 
other  Eastern  country.  No  man  had  a  right  to  dispose  of  his  daugh- 
ters in  marriage ;  when  girls  attained  mature  age,  they  were  exposed 
for  sale  in  the  public  markets,  and  delivered  to  the  highest  bidder.  The 
money  thus  obtained  for  beauty  was  applied  to  portioning  ugliness. 
Debauchery  and  gross  sensuality  were  tho  natiu^al  results  of  such  a 
system,  and  these  evils  were  aggravated  by  the  habitual  intoxication 
of  every  class  of  society.    This  dissolute  people  were  as  superstitious  as 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  19 

they  v/ere  depraved,  and  were  the  slaves  of  the  Chaldean  priests  and 
jupslers. 

The  Babylonians  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the  mechanical 
arts,  and  in  mathematical  science :  their  astronomical  knowledge  was 
very  extensive,  but  it  was  so  disfigured  by  astrological  absurdities  as  to 
be  nearly  useless.  The  arts  of  weaving  and  working  in  metal  were 
practised  in  Babylon ;  the  naphtha  and  petroleum  furnished  excellent 
fuel  for  furnaces ;  and  the  accounts  given  of  their  skill  in  metal- 
founding  show  that  they  had  made  many  ingenious  contrivances,  which 
sunplied  their  natural  Avants  of  stone  and  wood. 

The  Babylonian  language  belongs  to  that  class  called  Semit^ic,  of 
which  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Syriac,  are  branches.  They  possessed 
an  alphabetic  character,  and  wrote  on  bricks  and  earthen  cylinders.  It 
is  not  certain  that  they  possessed  books,  their  country  producing  no 
materials  from  which  paper  could  be  manufactured. 

Skction  III. — History  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 
FROM   B.  c.  2204   TO   B.  c.   538. 

Assyrian  history,  according  to  Grecian  authorities,  particularly 
Ctesias  and  Diodorus,  is  nothing  more  than  traditions  of  the  heroes  and 
heroines,  who,  at  some  early  period,  founded  a  kingdom  in  the  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Euphrates — traditions  without  any  chronological 
lata,  and  in  the  ordinary  style  of  Eastern  exaggeration.  The  Assyrian 
history  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  that  of  a  distinct  nation  of 
conquerors  that  founded  an  empire.  This  history  is  however  confined 
to  incidental  notices  of  the  wars  between  the  Ass)rrians  and  the  Isra- 
elites and  Jews.  Herod'otus  briefly  touches  on  the  Assyrian  empire ; 
but  his  narrative,  so  far  as  it  goes,  confirms  the  narrative  given  in  the 
Old  Testament.  We  shall  endeavor  to  deduce  from  all  these  sources 
the  most  authentic  account  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy. 

The  miraculous  interruption  of  the  building  of  Babel  led  to  the  aban- 
donment of  that  spot  by  the  followers  of  Nim'rod,  who  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  nomad  chief  that  founded  a  permanent  monarchy.  He 
was  the  Ninus  of  profane  history — a  warrior,  a  conqueror,  the  builder 
of  cities,  and  the  founder  of  an  empire.  Tradition  has  based  a  long 
roman-je  on  these  few  facts,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  detail.  The 
Assyrian  empire  appears  to  have  been  founded  b.  c.  1237,  and  Nin'eveh 
was  its  metropolis.  Ninus  chose  for  his  principal  ^queen  Semir'amis, 
the  wife  of  one  of  his  officers,  to  whose  prudent  counsels  he  is  said  to 
have  been  indebted  for  many  of  his  victories. 

On  the  death  of  Ninus,  Semir'amis  assumed  the  administration  of 
the  empire  as  regent.  She  is  said  to  have  founded  the  city  of  Bab'y- 
lon ;  but  this  is  clearly  erroneous.  The  additions,  however,  that  she 
made  to  the  city,  and  the  stupendous  edifices  with  which  she  adorned 
it,  in  some  degree  justified  the  tradition.  Her  wars  were  waged  in  the 
most  remote  countries ;  she  is  said  to  have  conquered  Egypt,  and 
invaded  Ethiopia,  on  one  side,  and  to  have  attacked  India,  on  the  other. 
Semir'amis  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Nin'yas,  who  gave  himself  up 
to  indolence  and  debauchery,  keeping  himself  secluded  in  his  palace 
and  intrusting  the  entiro  care  oi  the  adm/idstration  to  his  ministers 


20  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

His  successors  /or  several  generations  followed  his  base  examplb     a-ti 

the  Assyrian  monarchy  gradually  decayed.  -  ^ 

Leaving  the  traditions  respecting  Ninus  and  Semir^amis,  in  v,  hicL 
a  few  liistorical  facts  are  quite  obscured  under  a  cloud  of  fable«  and 
astronomical  allegories,  we  come  to  the  portion  of  AssjTian  nistory 
tounded  on  the  authentic  records  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  Assyr- 
ians began  to  extend  their  empire  westward  beyond  the  Euphrates  in 
the  reign  of  Pul  (b.  c.  771).  He  approached  the  confines  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  then  ruled  by  the  usurper  Men'ahem,  and  inspired  so 
much  terror,  that  his  forbearance  was  purchased  by  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver.* 

Tiglath-pul-as'sur  succeeded  to  the  throne  (b.  c.  747),  and  prepared 
to  pursue  the  plans  of  conquest  that  Pul  had  sketched.  He  conquered 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  transplanted  a  great  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants to  the  remote  parts  of  his  empire. f  Invited  by  A-liaz,  king  of 
Judah,  he  made  war  against  the  ancient  kingdom  of  S^Tia,  stormed  its 
celebrated  metropolis,  Damas'cus,  and  removed  the  vanquished  people 
beyond  the  Euphrates. 

Shalman-as'sur  was  the  next  monarch  (b.  c.  728).  He  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  took  Samaria  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  and  led 
the  greater  part  of  the  ten  tribes  into  captivity,  suppj^'ing  their  place 
with  colonies  from  other  states.  After  the  conquest  of  Israel,  Shal- 
man-as'sur invaded  Phoenicia,  and  subdued  all  the  principal  cities  ex- 
cept Tyre. 

San-her'ib,  or  Sennach'erib,  was  the  next  monarch.  He  led  an  army 
against  Hezekfah,  king  of  Judah  (b.  c.  714),  and  also  attacked  Egypt. 
His  impious  blasphemies  against  the  God  of  tire  Jews  were  punished 
by  the  miraculous  destruction  of  his  army ;  and  he  returned  home  mor- 
tified and  disgraced.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  and  he 
was  slain  by  his  own  sons. 

Assar-had'don-pul,  the  Esarhad'don  of  Scripture,  and  Sardanapalus 
of  profane  history,  was  the  third  son  of  San-her'ib,  and  was  chosen  his 
successor,  in  preference  to  the  parricides,  Adram-mel'ek  and  Shar- 
ez'er.  The  accoimts  given  of  this  prince  are  so  very  inconsistent,  that 
many  have  supposed  that  there  were  two  of  the  name ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  he  was  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  an  active  conqueror, 
and  that  he  subsequently  sunk  into  sensuality  and  sloth.  He  conquered 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  made  some  impression  on  Eg-}^t ;  but,  re- 
turning to  Nin'eveh,  he  became  the  slave  of  intemperance,  and  thus 
disgusted  the  hardy  warriors  whom  he  had  so  often  led  to  victory. 
The  satraps  of  Media  and  Babylonia  revolting,  besieged  Sardanapalus 
in  his  capital ;  and  he,  finding  himself  deserted  by  his  subjects,  and 
unable  to  protract  his  defence,  made  a  huge  pile,  on  which  he  placed 
his  wives  and  his  treasures ;  then  setting  it  on  fire,  he  threw  himself 
into  the  midst  of  the  flames  (b.  c.  6G7).  Thus  ended  the  Assyrian 
monarchy  ;  and  the  supremacy  of  central  and  western  Asia  was  tratfs- 
ferred  to  the  Babylonians. 

The  Kasdim,  or  Chaldeans,  a  northern  nomad  tribe  from  the  mount- 
ain-chains of  Tau'rus  and  the  Cau'casus,  appear  to  have  b«en  em- 

2  Kings  \T.  19.  t  2  Kings  xv.  29, 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  21 

ployed  as  mercenaries  by  the  Assyrian  monarclis,  and  to  have  been  sta- 
tioned in  Babylonia.  As  is  not  unusual  in  the  East,  these  soldiers  re- 
volted against  their  masters,  and  prepared  to  carve  out  an  empire  for  them- 
selves. That  they  were  a  conquering  horde  which  settled  in  the  country, 
is  proved  by  the  express  testimony  of  Isaiah.  "  Behold  the  land  of  the 
Chaldeans  [Kasdim] ;  this  people  was  not,  until  the  Assyrian  founded  it 
for  them  that  dwell  in  the  wilderness :  they  set  up  the  towers  thereof, 
they  raised  up  the  palaces  thereof"  *  The  chronology  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Chaldeans  commences  with  the  reign  of  Nabonas'sar,  February 
26th  (b.  c.  74*7),  a  remarkable  era  in  history,  because  the  introduction 
of  the  Egyptian  solar  year,  during  the  reign  of  that  prince,  first  sup- 
plied the  Chaldeans  with  an  accurate  mode  of  measuring  time.  There 
is  nothing  worthy  of  note  in  the  history  of  Nabonas'sar,  and  his  twelve 
immediate  successors.  During  their  reigns,  indeed.  Babylonia  appears 
again  to  have  become  dependant  upon  Assyr'ia,  and  not  to  have  re- 
covered its  freedom  until  the  general  insurrection  against  Sardana- 
palus. 

Nabopolas'sar,  or  Ncbo-pul-as'sar,  became  king  of  Bab'ylon  soon 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  empire  (b.  c.  627).  Pharaoh- 
Necho  took  advantage  of  the  distracted  state  of  central  Asia  to  extend 
his  dominions  to  the  Euphrates.  He  gained  possession  of  Car'chemish 
(Circesium),  and  induced  the  governors  of  Cojle-Syria  and  Phoenicia  to 
revolt  against  Nabopolas'sar.  In  the  reduction  of  these  provinces,  the 
Babylonian  monarch  was  greatly  assisted  by  his  son,  Nebuchadnez'zar 
or  Nebo-kal-as'sar,  who  subsequently  raised  the  empire  to  the  summit 
of  its  greatness.  Nebuchadnez'zar  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over 
Pharaoh-Necho,  at  Car'chemish  (b.  c.  604) ;  and  was  about  to  follow 
up  his  success  by  invading  Egypt,  when  he  was  recalled  to  Bab'ylor. 
in  consequence  of  his  father's  death. 

Nitoc'ns  was  probably  the  queen  of  Nebuchadnez'zar.  She  seems 
to  have  acted  as  regent  while  the  king  was  employed  in  foreign  wars, 
and  her  name  is  associated  with  the  splendid  buildings  erected  in 
Babylon  in  this  reign. 

Before  invading  Egypt,  Nebuchadnez''zar  had  conquered  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  and  brought  several  of  its  princes  to  Bab'ylon  as  captives  or 
hostages.  Among  these  was  the  prophet  Daniel. f  Soon  afterward  the 
Scytliians,  probably  some  Tartar  horde,  invaded  the  Assyrian  provinces, 
and  tlie  Jews  embraced  this  opportunity  of  asserting  their  independence 
Nebuchadnez'zar  was  then  b(^«icging  in  conjunction  with  Cyax'ares  the 
Mede  ;  but  having  taken  and  destroyed  this  ancient  rival  of  Bab'ylon, 
he  marched  against  Jerusalem  with  a  resistless  force.  The  holy  city 
was  taken  and  plundered,  its  monarch  slain,  his  son  sent  prisoner  to 
Bab'ylon,  and  a  new  king  appointed  as  deputy  to  the  conqueror.  The 
Jews  again  revolted,  relying  on  the  promised  aid  of  the  Egyptians,  bii 
were  once  more  subdued,  and  treated  with  barbarous  cruelty.  Their 
city  was  laid  desolate,  their  lands  wasted,  and  the  bulk  of  the  nation 
led  into  captivity.  The  conqueror  then  proceeded  into  Phoenicia,  which 
he  completely  subdued ;  whence  he  advanced  to  Egypt,  and  plundered 
the  bwer  valley  of  the  Nile.  It  was  after  his  return  from  this  expedi- 
tion, that  Nebuchadnez'zar  erected  the  golden  image  in  the  plains  of 
•Isaiah  xxiii.  13.  tl^-^niel  ii.  ],  &c. 


22  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Dura.*  Toward  the  close  of  his  r(  igii,  the  impiety  of  Nebiickadi.ez'zai 
was  punished  by  a  fit  of  lunacy ;  during  which  "  he  was  driven  from 
men,  and  did  eat  grass  as  oxen,  and  his  body  was  Avet  with  the  dew 
of  heaven,  till  his  hairs  were  groAvn  like  eagles'  feathers,  and  his  naila 
like  birds'  claws. "f 

Evil-Merodach  succeeded,  and  after  a  short  reign  was  murdered  by 
his  sister's  husband,  Neriglis'sar.  But  the  young  prince  Belshaz'zar, 
was  saved  from  the  conspirators.  He  continued  several  years  in  ob- 
scurity, but  did  not  profit  by  the  stern  lessons  of  adversity.  At  this 
time  the  power  of  the  Medes  had  reached  a  formidable  height,  and  the 
Babylonians  summoned  the  kings  of  western  Asia  to  aid  in  preventing 
its  further  extension.  The  Medes  were  commanded  by  Cyax'ares  and 
his  nephew  Cy'rns.  After  a  fierce  engagement,  the  Babylonians  were 
totally  defeated,  and  their  sovereign  slain. 

Labosoar^'chad  succeeded  his  father  Neriglis^sar  (b.  c.  555) ;  but  on 
account  of  his  tyranny  was  d(!throned,  after  a  reign  of  only  a  few 
months,  and  the  legitimate  line  restored  in  the  person  of  Nebo-an-dal, 
called  also  Nabonadius  and  Labynetus,  who  took  the  surname  of  Bel- 
shaz'zar,  that  is,  the  "  mighty  prince  of  Bel."  As  he  was  a  youth,  the 
regency  was  intrusted  to  Queen  Nitoc'ris.  She  completed  the  works 
which  Nebuchadnez'zar  had  commenced,  and  is  said  to  have  connected 
the  eastern  and  western  banks  of  the  Euphrates  both  by  a  bridge  and  a 
timn^l.  To  complete  the  last  work,  it  was  necessary  to  turn  the  river 
for  a  time  into  a  new  channel ;  and  for  this  purpose  a  lake  and  canal 
-A-ere  constructed  to  the  north  of  Bab'ylon.  When  Belshaz'zar  assumed 
the  reins  of  government,  he  deserted  the  prudent  line  of  policy  by 
which  Nitoc'ris  had  delayed  the  fate  of  the  tottering  empire ;  not  only 
abandoning  himself  to  licentious  pleasures,  but  provoking  the  hostility 
of  the  warlike  Medes.  Cyax'ares,  the  "  Darawe'sh"  (Dari'us),  that  is, 
king  of  the  Medes,  accompanied  by  his  nephew  Cy'rus,  invaded  Bab- 
ylonia, and  soon  laid  siege  to  the  metropolis.  Confiding  in  the  strength 
of  the  walls,  Belshaz'zar  laughed  his  enemies  to  scorn ;  and  wliile  the 
enemy  was  still  before  the  walls,  gave  a  great  feast  in  honor  of  his  ex- 
pected success.  Cy'rus,  on  the  same  evening,  sent  a  detachment  to 
open  the  canal  leading  to  the  lake  that  had  been  dug  by  Nitoc'ris,  or- 
dering his  soldiers,  as  soon  as  the  water  should  be  drawn  from  the  bed 
of  the  river,  to  enter  the  city  through  the  deserted  channel. 

Meantime  'he  revelry  of  the  feast  was  disturbed  by  the  supernatural 
handwriting  ni  -.rpreted  by  Daniel,^  announcing  the  impeniling  de- 
struction o*  .hf  empire.  Guided  by  the  lights  that  gleamed  from  the 
chambers  <t  r  pelry,  the  Medes  penetrated  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
city,  and  dttai  ked  the  guards  before  the  palace.  The  guests  witliin, 
startled  by  lIiu  clash  of  arms,  flung  the  gates  open  to  ascertain  the  cause 
of  the  tumuli,  and  thus  gave  admission  to  the  enemy.  Belshaz'zar,  in 
this  hour  of  despair,  behaved  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  illustrious  de- 
scent :  he  drew  his  sword,  and  at  the  head  of  a  few  friends  attempted 
to  drive  back  the  enemy;  but,  "flushed  with  success,  and  drunk  with 
gore,  whole  multitudes  poured  in :"  he  fell  in  his  own  hall ;  and  v  •th 
Him  fell  the  empire  of  Bab'ylon  (b.  c.  538). 

•  Da^iiel  iii.  1,  &c.  f  Daniel  iv.  33.  {  Daniel  v.  1,  &c. 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  23 

Section  IV. — Description  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 

The  city  of  Nin'eveh,  probably  so  named  from  Ninus,  its  founder, 
stood  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  nearly  three  hundred  miles  north 
of  Bab'ylon.  Like  all  the  ancient  cities  of  Asia,  it  was  of  a  rectangular 
form,  and  retained  the  traces  of  the  nomad  encampment  in  which  it 
originated.  It  was  of  enormous  dimensions,  being  fifteen  miles  in 
length,  nine  in  breadth,  and  forty-eight  in  circumference.  Nor  will 
this  srreat  extent  seem  incredible,  when  we  reflect  that  the  houses  were 
not  built  in  continuous  streets,  biu  stood  apart,  as  the  tents  formerly 
did,  each  surrounded  by  gardens,  parks,  and  farms,  whose  size  varied 
according  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  respective  proprietors.  Nin'- 
eveh, in  short,  was  less  a  city,  according  to  the  modern  European  no- 
tions, than  a  collection  of  villages,  hamlets,  and  noblemen's  seats,  en- 
closed within  one  wall  as  a  common  defence.  The  fortifications,  ac- 
cording to  the  historians,  were  constructed  on  a  stupendous  scale.  The 
walls  were  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  so  wide  that  three  chariots 
might  drive  on  them  abreast,  and  they  were  further  secured  by  fifteen 
hundred  lofty  towers.  After  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Medes, 
Nin'eveh  appears  to  have  long  remained  desolate  ;  several  villages 
were  subsequently  erected  from  its  ruins,  the  largest  of  which  pre- 
served the  name  of  the  ancient  metropolis.  It  is  now  a  desert  waste : 
even  the  wild  vegetation  that  usually  veils  the  ruins  of  fallen  greatness 
has  disappeared,  and  desolation  is  spread  over  the  entire  landscape. 

Bab'ylon  stood  in  a  plain,  and  was  perfectly  square ;  the  river 
Euphrates  ran  through  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  also  supplied  water 
to  the  ditches,  which  were  dug  in  front  of  the  walls.  The  sti'eeta 
were  perfectly  straight,  and  crossed  each  other  at  right  angles. 

On  the  western  bank  of  the  river,  stood  tlte  tower  of  Belus,  wiilch 
was  probably  built  on  the  foundations  of  Baliel.  When  completed  by 
Nebuchadnez'zar,  each  of  the  sides  of  the  city  was  about  fifteen  miles 
in  length,  and  consequently  the  whole  circumference  was  sixty  miles, 
The  eastern  division  was  the  most  recent :  it  was  built  by  the  Kasdim 
or  Chaldeans  ;  and  there  Nebuchadnez'zar  erected  the  great  palace 
whose  circuit  was  equal  to  that  of  a  moderate-sized  city  Like  the 
generality  of  steppe  regions,  the  country  betw^een  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  produced  neither  stone  nor  wood  fit  for  building ;  but  the 
vicmity  of  Bab'ylon  furnished  an  inexhtiustible  supply  of  clay,  which, 
dried  in  the  sun  or  burnt  in  kilns,  became  so  firm  and  durable,  that  the 
remains  of  ancient  walls,  which  have  been  thrown  down  for  centuries, 
lave  withstood  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  to  the  present  day ;  and, 
is  may  be  seen  by  the  specimens  in  the  British  Museum,  retain  the 
arrow-headed  inscriptions  with  which  they  were  impressed.  Nature 
also  provided  a  plentiful  supply  of  naphtha  or  bitumen,  which  served 
instead  ot  lime.  Layers  of  rushes  and  palm-leaves  were  laid  between 
he  strata  of  brick ;  and  the  traveller  Niebuhr  found  specimens  of 
these  in  the  ruins  of  Bab'ylon,  so  perfect  that  it  might  have  been  sup- 
posed that  they  had  not  been  placed  together  longer  than  a  few  months. 

The  walls  of  Bab'ylon  were  made  of  brick,  cemented  by  bitumen, 
eighty-seven  feel  thick,  and  more,  than  three  hundred  high :  they  were 


24  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

sxirroimded  by  a  deep  ditch,  and  pierced  by  a  hundred  gates,  all  made 
of  solid  brass.  Towers  were  erected  for  the  defence  of  the  gates  and 
the  corners  of  the  walls,  except  where  a  morass  protected  the  walls 
and  prevented  the  approach  of  an  enemy.  Wide,  straight  streets,  oi 
rather  roads,  from  each  of  the  gates,  crossed  each  other  at  right  angles, 
which,  with  the  four  half-streets  that  fronted  to  the  walls,  divided  the 
city  into  six  hundred  and  seventy-six  squares,  each  of  four  furlongs  and 
a  half  on  each  side,  or  two  miles  and  a  quarter  in  circumference. 
These  squares  were,  in  fact,  separate  villages,  and  many  of  them  were 
wholly  untenanted,  being  used  as  parks  or  pleasure-grounds  by  the  king 
and  his  nobles. 

A  bridge  passed  over  the  Euphrates  between  the  two  palaces  on  the 
opposite  banks,  which,  we  are  assured,  were  further  connected  bv 
meb  IS  of  a  tunnel.  The  length  of  the  bridge  was  about  a  furlong,  but 
its  breadth  only  thirty  feet ;  a  long  causeway  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
made  the  bridge  appear  of  much  greater  extent  than  it  really  was. 

The  temple  of  Belus  was  the  most  wondrous  structure  of  the  city. 
It  was  at  its  foundation  a  furlong  in  length,  and  about  the  same  in 
breadth :  its  height  is  said  to  have  exceeded  six  hundred  feet,  Avhich  is 
more  than  that  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids.  It  was  built  in  eight  stories, 
gradually  diminishing  in  size  as  they  ascended.  Instead  of  stairs, 
tliere  was  a  sloping  terrace  on  the  outside,  sufficiently  wide  for  car- 
riages and  beasts  of  burden  to  ascend.  Nebuchadnez'zar  made  great 
additions  to  this  tower,  and  surrounded  it  with  smaller  edifices,  enclosed 
by  a  wall  somewhat  more  than  two  miles  in  circumference.  The  whole 
was  sacred  to  Bel  or  Belus,  whose  temple  was  adorned  with  idols  of 
gold,  and  all  the  wealth  that  the  Babylonians  had  acquired  by  the 
plunder  of  the  East.  Next  to  the  temple  was  the  old  palace,  strongly 
fortified  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  was  the  new  palace, 
whose  enclosures  and  pleasure-grounds  covered  a  space  of  eight  miles 
round.  Within  its  precincts  were  the  celebrated  hanging  gardens, 
consisting  of  terraces  one  above  another,  raised  upon  pillars  higher 
than  the  walls  of  the  city,  well  floored  with  cement  and  lead,  and 
covered  with  earth,  in  which  the  most  beautiful  trees  aad  shrubs  were 
planted. 

From  the  time  of  its  conquest,  Bab'ylon  gradually  declined.  Alex- 
an'der  the  Great  designed  Bab'ylon  to  be  the  capital  of  his  empire,  and 
was  preparing  to  restore  its  ancient  splendor  when  he  was  prematurely 
cut  oK  Tbf  nceforward,  its  decay  was  rapid ;  and  it  is  now  a  vast 
heap  of  ruins,  tenanted  only  by  the  beasts  and  birds  that  love  to  haunt 
solitary  places.  Thus  literally  has  the  prediction  of  the  prophet  been 
fulfilled :  "  Bab'ylon,  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the  Chal- 
dees'  excellency,  shall  be  as  when  God  overthrew  Sodom  and  Gomor- 
rah. It  shall  never  be  inhabited,  neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  gen- 
eratioi.  to  generation :  but  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there ; 
and  ostriches  shall  fill  their  houses,  and  the  daughters  of  the  owl  shall 
dwell  there  and  satyrs  shall  dance  there.  And  the  howlers  [jackals] 
shall  cry  in  their  desolate  houses,  and  wild  hounds  in  their  pleasant 
palaces  "  * 

*  Isaiah  xiii.  19-22.  (Gesenius's  Translation.) 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  2S 

SectiOiN  v.  — Commercii  and  ManvfacLurcs  of  Ike  Babylonians. 

Weaving  of  cotton,  \^oollen  stufTs,  and  carpets,  were  the  principai 
manufactures  established  in  Bab'ylon ;  and  the  cotton  robes  called 
sindoncs,  probably  a  species  of  muslins,  were  so  highly  esteemed  for 
their  delicacy  of  texture  and  brilliancy  of  color,  that  they  were  appro- 
priated to  royal  use.  Wo  read  in  the  book  of  Joshua,  that  a  "  Baby- 
lonish garment"  formed  part  of  the  sacrilegious  spoil  which  A'chan  hid 
in  his  tent  after  the  conquest  of  Jer'icho.  Articles  of  luxury,  such  as 
perfumed  waters,  carved  walking-canes,  engraved  stones,  and  seal 
rings,  were  made  in  the  city ;  and  the  art  of  cutting  precious  stones 
was  carried  to  a  perfection  not  exceeded  by  our  modern  lapidaries,  .s 
is  manifest  from  the  collection  of  Babylonian  gems  in  the  British 
JVIuseum. 

The  Babylonians  had  an  extensive  commerce  eastward  with  Persia 
and  northern  India,  whence  they  obtained  gold,  precious  stones,  rich 
dye-stufl's,  and  the  best  hounds.  From  Kandahar  and  Kashmir  they 
procured  fine  wool,  and  the  shawls  which  are  still  so  highly  valued. 
Emeralds,  jaspers,  and  other  precious  stones,  procured  from  the  desert 
of  Bac'tria,  the  modern  Gobi,  were  brought  in  great  abundance  to 
Bab'ylon,  and  thence  transmitted  to  western  Asia  and  Europe.  Cochi- 
neal, or  rather  the  Indian  lac,  Avas  imported  in  considerable  quantities ; 
indeed,  the  Greeks  confess  that  they  derived  their  knowledge  of  the 
insect  Avhich  produces  this  dye  from  the  Babylonians.  Gold  and  gold- 
dust  were  also  ol^tained  from  northern  India,  but  more  as  articles  of 
tribute  than  of  commerce.  It  is  uncertain  whether  any  commerce  was 
opened  Avith  China  before  the  latter  ages  of  the  Persian  empire ;  but 
the  Babylonians  had  certainly  intercourse  with  Tibet  and  the  countries 
round  the  Hindu  Kush. 

It  was  chiefly  through  their  commercial  allies,  the  Phoenicians,  that 
the  Babylonians  had  any  trade  in  the  Indian  seas,  though  Isaiah  plainly 
states  that  they  had  a  navy  of  their  OAvn  ;  for  he  mentions  "  the  Chal- 
deans, whose  cry  [exultation]  is  in  their  ships."*  The  trade  by  sea 
was  between  the  mouths  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  the  Avestern 
coasts  of  India  and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  From  these  countries  they 
imported  timber  of  various  kinds,  sugar-canes,  spices,  cinnamon,  and 
pearls.  This  trade  Avas  completely  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  through 
fear  of  the  pirates  who  infested  those  seas,  and  who,  by  a  sudden  dash 
up  the  great  rivers,  like  the  Normans  and  Danes  of  Europe,  might  sur- 
prise and  plunder  the  chief  cities  of  the  empire.  To  prevent  this 
misfortune,  they  blocked  up  the  Tigris  with  immense  dams,  which 
effectually  put  an  end  to  all  navigation  on  the  river,  and  to  the  inter- 
course between  Bab'ylon  and  southern  India. 

At  a  very  early  period  the  Babylonians  formed  commercial  estab- 
lishments on  the  Bahrein  islands  in  the  Persian  gulf,  whence 
they  obtained  large  quantities  of  the  finest  pearls.  Pearl-oysters  are 
found  on  almost  all  the  coasts  in  this  gulf,  but  the  most  considerable 
bank  is  that  which  extends  along  the  western  coast,  from  the  Bahrein 
islands,  nearly  as  far  as  Cape  Dsiulfar.  The  pearls  are  both  white  and 
/ellow,  they  are  also  as  hard  as  rock,  and  are  therefore  preferred  to 

•  Isaiah  xlii.  14. 


26  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  pearls  of  Ceylon,  which  shiver  to  pieces  when  struck  with  a  ham 
mer.  The  cotton  plantations  on  these  islands  were  very  extensive,  and 
the  staple  of  the  cotton  wool  they  produced  was  remarkable  for  its 
length  and  fineness,  surpassing  in  this  respect  the  cotton  of  India. 
From  these  islands  the  Babylonians,  and  after  them  the  Phoenicians, 
obtained  the  best  timber  for  ship-building,  probably  some  species  of  the 
Indian  teak-wood,  which  continues  to  be  highly  valued  for  this  purpose 
They  also  imported  various  kinds  of  ornamental  timber,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  walking-canes  and  inlaid  work,  for  which  the  Babylo- 
nians were  deservedly  celebrated. 


W^KSTEttN  ASIA  *• 


CHAPTER  IV. 
WESTERN  ASIA 

INCLUDINU  ^ 

ASIA    MINOR,    SYRIA,    AND    PAL.E^TTlNG 

Sect?:on  I. — Asia  Minor. — Geographical  Outline. 

Asia.  Minor  is  a  term  not  used  by  classical  writers  :  it  was  invented 
in  the  middle  ages,  to  describe  the  peninsula  between  the  iEgean, 
the  Black  sea,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Levant,  which  by  more  recent 
authors  is  called  Anatolia.  It  included  a  great  number  of  petty  states, 
wrhose  boundaries  varied  at  different  periods.  In  the  northern  part  of 
the  peninsula,  beginning  from  the  western  side,  the  chief  countries 
were  My'sia,  Bithyn'ia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Pon'tus.  In  the  centre 
Lyd'ia,  Phry'gia,  Gahitia,  Lycaonia,  Isaiiria,  Cappadocia,  and  Armenia 
In  the  south  were  Cdria,  Ly'cia,  Pisid'ia,  Pamphy'lia,  and  Cilic'ia. 

The  western  part  of  My'sia,  on  the  seacoast,  was  called  Lesser 
Phry'gia,  or  Troas.  It  was  celebrated  for  the  Trojan  plains  and'  the 
city  of  Troy,  immortalized  by  Homer. 

Bithyn'ia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Pon'tus,  skirt  the  Black  sea,  and  were 
studded  with  Greek  colonies  during  the  flourishing  age  of  Grecian 
commerce.  The  Halys  and  San'garis,  the  principal  rivers  of  Asia 
Minor,  fall  into  the  Black  sea. 

The  entire  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor  was  colonized  by  the  Greeks, 
whose  commercial  cities  in  Ionia,  ^Eolia,  and  Caria,  were  the  most 
flourishing  free  states  o^  antiquity,  before  they  were  conquered  by  the 
Persians. 

Lyd'ia,  called  also  Maeonia,  besides  the  Greek  cities  on  its  coasts, 
contained  the  ce'  ebrated  metropolis  Sar'dis,  which  stood  on  the  banks 
of  the  Pactolus  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  Lydian  kingdom,  and,  after  its  conquest  by  the  Persians,  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  their  empire. 

The  boundaries  of  Phry'gia  were  almost  constantly  varying;  its 
chief  cities  were  Gor'dium  and  CelEe'nfe  in  ancient  times ;  but  many 
others  were  erected  when  the  Macedonians  became  masters  of  the 
coun;,ry  ;  of  which  the  chief  were  Apajnea,  Laodicea,  and  Colosse. 

Galada  received  its  name  from  a  body  of  Gauls  who  entered  that 
country  in  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Isauria  and  Ly- 
caonia were  intersected  by  the  chain  of  Mount  Taurus.  Cappadocia 
lay  betAveen  the  Halys  and  Euphrates  :  its  chief  town  was  Maz'aca. 
Armenia  was  the  name  of  the  mountainous  districts  bordering  on  tha 
Caspian  sea:  its  chief  ri^eis  were  the  Cyrus  and  Arax'es,  both  of 


28  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

considerable  magnitude.     For  a  long  time  it  was  without  cities  ;  but  at 
length  Tigranes,  one  of  its  monarchs,  erected  Tigranocer'ta. 

Caria  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast. 
Lycia,  Pisfdia,  and  Pam'phylia,  were  mountainous  districts.  Cilicia 
bordered  upon  Syria,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  Mount  Am'anus : 
its  chief  cities  were  Tar'sus  and  Anchiale,  both  founded  by  Sardana- 
palus. 

Section  II. — Ancient  History  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  three  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor  that  best  deserve  notice  v.'ere  the 
Trojan,  the  Phrygian,  and  the  Lydian.  The  history  of  Troy  consists 
of  mere  traditions  preserved  by  the  Greek  epic  and  dramatic  poets .  its 
chronology  is  very  uncertain,  and  the  entire  narrative  very  doubtful. 
Troy  is  said  to  have  been  originally  founded  by  Dar'danus,  a  native  of 
Samothrace  (about  b.  c.  1400).  To  him  succeeded  Erichthonius,  cel- 
ebrated for  his  splendid  herds  of  horses  ;  Tros,  who  named  the  city 
Troy  ;  Plus,  who  changed  the  name  to  Plium  ;  Laom'edon,  during 
whose  reign  the  city  was  sacked  by  Her'cules  ;  and  Podar'kes,  who 
was  also  called  Priam.  Alexander,  or  Paris,  the  son  of  Priam,  being 
sent  as  ambassador  into  southern  Greece,  carried  off  Helen,  the  wife 
of  Menelaiis,  king  of  Sparta.  The  Grecian  kings  espoused  the  cause 
<  •  the  injured  husband,  and  with  their  united  forces  warred  against 
'J  \(y\  The  city  was  taken  after  a  siege  that  lasted  ten  years,  and  was 
pii'^.'  -d  and  burned  by  the  conquerors. 

i  -  ;YGiAN  history  is  also  composed  of  obscure  traditions ;  but  tha  , 
the  ."A-rygians  were  originally  a  very  powerful  people,  appears  from  the 
grea  t/iffusion  of  their  national  worship  throughout  Europe.  The  in- 
vestifxj^ons  of  modern  travellers  have  brought  to  light  new  proofs  of  the 
greatiiess  of  the  Phrygians  in  their  tombs  and  temples  excavated  from 
the  solid  rock.  Their  chiet  deity  was  Cybele,  who  seems  to  have  been 
a  personification  of  the  prolific  powers  of  the  earth :  her  priests  were 
named  Coryban'tes  ;  celebrated  for  their  frantic  dances,  in  which  they 
beat  and  cut  themselves.  Most  of  the  Phrygian  kings  were  named 
either  Midas  or  Gor''dius ;  but  the  order  of  their  succession  can  not  bb 
ascertained.  Gor'dius  I.,  the  founder  of  the  city  Gor'dium,  was  origi- 
nally a  peasant';  when  raised  to  the  throne,  he  consecrated  his  cart  to 
the  gods.  The  beam  was  fastened  to  the  yoke  by  a  complicated  knot; 
and  a  traditional  oracle  declared,  tuat  whoever  untied  the  knot  should 
be  king  of  Asia.  When  this  was  told  to  Alexander  the  Great,  he  cut 
it  through  with  his  sword.  In  the  reign  of  Midas  V.,  Phrygia  became 
a  province  of  the  Lydian  empire. 

The  Lydians,  called  also  Maeonians,  were  a  branch  of  the  Carians. 
Three  dynasties  reigned  over  them  successiA'ely.  That  of  the  Aty'adae 
terminated  (b.  c.  1232)  in  the  person  of  Om'phale,  who  was  said  to  be 
the  wife  of  Hercules.  The  race  of  the  Heraclidae  terminated  with 
Candaules,  who  was  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  his  queen,  by  Gy'- 
ges,  a  Lydian  nobleman  (b.  c.  727).  Gy'ges  founded  the  dynasty  of  the 
Merm'nadae,  under  whose  sway  Lyd'ia  rose  to  gTeat  power.  During 
the  reign  of  Ar'dys,  the  second  of  the  dynasty,  Asia  Minor  was  d? 


SYRIA.  29 


vastated  by  hordes  of  nortliem  barbarians,  called  Cimmenatis,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  their  original  seats  by  the  Scythians.  Their  rav- 
ages were  continued  for  about  half  a  century :  but  they  were  fnially 
driven  out  by  Alyat'tes,  the  grandson  of  Ar'dys.  Encouraged  by  his 
success  against  the  Cimmerians,  Alyat'tes  endeavored  to  check  the 
growing  power  of  the  Medes,  and  for  six  years  waged  war  against 
Cyax'ares.  The  contest  was  at  length  about  to  be  decided  by  a  great 
battle,  when  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  so  terrified  both  armies  in  the  midst 
of  the  fight,  that  they  separated  in  consternation  (b.  c.  601).  This  re- 
markable eclipse  was  predicted  by  Thalcs  of  Miletus,  and  is  the  first 
recorded  to  have  been  calculated  by  astronomers. 

Crce'sus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alyat'tes,  subdued  all  the  Grecian 
states  in  Asia  Minor,  and  extended  his  empire  on  the  eastern  side  to 
the  river  Halys.  The  magnificence  of  his  court  at  Sardis  attracted 
visiters  from  different  countries  ;  but  Crce'sus  was  more  anxious  to  •  n- 
lertain  philosophers  and  men  of  learning  from  Greece.  The  illustrious 
Solon  was  once  his  guest,  and  with  honorable  freedom  refused  to  de- 
clare Crce'sus  perfectly  happy  until  he  knew  the  termination  of  his 
career.  The  Lydian  monarch  was  deeply  olTended ;  but  ere  long  he 
had  reason  to  admire  the  wisdom  of  the  Athenian  sage.  Seduced  by 
the  pretended  oracles  of  Delphi,  he  waged  war  against  the  rising  Per- 
sian empire  ;  but  was  defeated  by  Cy'rus,  and  taken  prisoner.  Being 
sentenced  to  death  by  the  barbarous  victor,  he  exclaimed,  when  placed 
on  the  funeral  pile,  "  O  Solon,  Solon !"  Cy'rus  asked  the  meaning  of 
this  invocation ;  and  was  so  struck  by  the  impressive  example  of  the 
philosopher's  wisdom,  that  he  not  only  spared  the  life  of  Crce'sus,  bu< 
made  him  his  friend  and  counsellor  (b.  c.  549). 

Lydia,  and  the  rest  of  Asia  Minor,  remained  subject  to  the  Persian 
empire  until  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Section  III. — Syria. — Geographical  Outline. 

The  name  of  Syria  was  loosely  given  by  the  Greeks,  as  that  of 
A-'ram  was  by  the  Hebrews,  not  only  to  the  country  now  cal'-d  by  that 
name,  but  also  to  Mesopotamia  and  part  of  Asia  Minor ;  but  it  is  prop- 
erly restricted  to  the  region  between  Mount  Am^anus  on  the  north, 
the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  Arabia  on  the  south,  and  Phcenicia  on  the 
west.  It  has  been  variously  divided,  but  the  most  convenient  division 
is  into  three  unequal  portions — Syria  Proper,  which  includes  the  prov- 
inces of  Commagene,  Seleucis,  and  Coele-Syria ;  Ph'jenicia  and  the 
tountry  of  the  Philistines ;  and  Palestine,  of  which  we  shall  treat  in  a 
separate  chapter. 

The  principal  city  of  Commagene  was  Samosata  on  the  Euphrates  . 
there  were  several  trading  towns  of  minor  importance,  all  in  the  vicin- 
ity. Seleucis  was  adorned  with  many  splendid  cities  during  the  reigns 
of  the  successors  of  Alexander,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  were 
Antioch  and  Seleucia.  It  contained  also  Hierap'olis,  dedicated  to  the 
Syrian  goddess  Bercea,  the  modern  Aleppo,  and  Heliop'olis  (Baal'bec), 
whose  magnificent  ruins  still  attract  admiration.  Ccele-Syria,  or  Hol- 
low Syria,  was  so  called  because  it  lies  between  two  parallel  chains 
of  mountains.  I^ib'anus  and  Ar.tilib'anus :  it  contained   Damascus,  the 


so  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

ancient  metropolis  of  Syria,  which  existed  as  a  city  in  the  days  of 
Abraham,  Ab'ila,  and  Laodicea.  The  Syrian  desert  adjoins  this  divis« 
ion,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  a  fertile  oasis,  on  which  the  city  of  Tad- 
mor,  or  Palmy'ra,  was  founded  by  Solomon.  Its  ruins  rival  those  of 
Baalbec  in  magnitude  and  beauty.  Southeast  of  this  was  Thap'sacus, 
opposite  to  which  the  Euphrates  was  fordable. 

Phoenicia,  or  Phoenice,  skirted  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, but  its  boundaries  were  almost  perpetually  varying.  It  contained 
Sidon,  the  most  ancient  commercial  city  in  the  world  ;  T>Te,  commonly 
called  "  the  daughter  of  Sidon ;"  Ar'adus,  also  an  insular  city  ;  Trip'- 
olis,  so  called  because  it  was  colonized  by  the  three  preceding  cities 
conjointly  :  Byb'lus  and  Bery'tus,  the  modern  Beiroot,  which  is  stiU  a 
good  harbor. 

Tyre  was  originally  a  Sidouian  colony,  but  rose  rapidly  abuve  the 
parent  state,  and  became  a  flourishing  commercial  city.  After  its  cap- 
ture by  Alexander  the  Great,  Tyre  gradually  declined,  less  in  conse- 
quence of  the  conqueror's  vengeance  than  of  the  founding  of  Alexan- 
dria in  Egypt,  which  soon  became  the  seat  of  the  commerce  that  had 
previously  centred  in  Tyre. 

Section  IV.— Social  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Syrians  and 

Phxnicians. 

Syria  contained  but  one  large  river,  the  Oron'tes,  a  turbid  and  rapid 
stream,  whose  navigation  is  impeded  by  rapids,  and  whose  waters  can 
not  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  But  there  are  several  minor  rivers 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Damascus,  which,  as  well  as  their  tributary 
streams,  are  remarkable  for  their  limpid  waters  and  abundance  of  fish 
The  soil  is  generally  better  suited  to  pasturage  than  agriculture.  Two 
large  valleys  of  mineral  salt  added  greatly  to  the  natural  wealth  of  the 
country ;  and  the  mountains  of  Leb'anon  supplied  abundance  of  excel- 
lent timber  both  for  house  and  ship-building.  Syria  was  consequently 
partly  suited  to  a  nomad,  and  partly  to  a  commercial  people  ;  and  this 
mixture  of  the  two  opposite  characters,  with  scarcely  any  trace  of  the 
intermediate  agricultural  class,  led  to  many  revolutions  in  the  Syrian 
government ;  the  cities  were  more  or  less  republican,  while  the  rural 
districts  were  subject  to  petty  despots.  The  Syrian  religion  appears 
to  have  been  elementary ;  that  is,  the  objects  of  worship  were  the 
personifications  of  some  powers  of  nature :  their  most  celebrated 
deity,  Astar'te,  or  the  Syrian  goddess,  represented  both  the  moon  and 
the  prolific  power  of  the  earth,  and  was  worshipped  with  the  same 
licentious  ceremonies  as  the  Babylonian  Mylit^ta. 

The  Ph(ENICians,  like  the  Syrians,  belonged  to  the  great  Aramean, 
or  Semitic  family  of  nations.  Their  narrow  and  short  line  of  coast, 
indented  with  excellent  bays  and  harbors,  was  covered  with  lofty  and 
wooded  mountains,  that  jut  out  into  the  sea,  and  form  bold  promonto- 
ries. Several  islands  stud  the  coast,  on  which  cities  and  commercial 
establishments  were  founded,  as  well  as  on  the  mainland.  Each  ©1 
these  cities  was  an  independent  state  ;  but  they  were  generally  united 
by  a  federative  league,  under  the  presidency  of  Sidon,  and  afterward 


SYRIA. 


31 


of  Tyre.  The  religion  oi  the  Phoenicians  appears  to  haie  been  more" 
sanguinary  than  that  of  most  other  nations.  Tham^muz,  or  Adonis, 
was  Avorshipped  with  very  licentious  rites,  which  were  supposed  to 
have  a  mystic  signification. 

Section  V. — History  of  the  Syrians  and  Phcenicians. 

Syria  was  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  states,  most  of  which 
were  subdued  by  the  Jewish  king,  David  (b.  c.  1044).  Toward  the 
close  of  Solomon's  reign,  Rezon,  ''vho  had  been  originally  a  slave, 
threw  off  the  yoke,  and  founded  the  SjTian  kingdom  of  Damascus. 
Ben-hadad,  the  most  powerful  of  his  successors,  waged  a  long  and 
sanguinary  war  against  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  during  the  reigns  of 
Ahab  and  Jchoram.  He  was  finally  murdered  by  Hazael,  one  of  his 
servants  (b.  c.  884)  who  usurped  the  vacant  throne.  Hazael  was  a 
warlike  prince ;  he  gained  several  brilliant  victories  over  the  forces  of 
Israel  and  Judah,  compelling  the  monarchs  of  both  to  resign  several 
important  provinces,  and  pay  him  tribute.  He  also  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  E'lath  on  the  Red  sea,  and  greatly  increased  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  his  dominions.  But  these  advantages  were  lost  under 
the  reign  of  his  inglorious  son,  Ben-hadad  II. 

The  Syrians  recovered  some  of  their  power  under  Rezin ;  toward 
the  close  of  his  reign,  he  entered  into  alliance  with  Pekah,  king  of 
Israel,  against  A''haz,  king  of  Judah.  The  Syrians  and  Israelites 
gained  so  many  advantages,  that  A''haz  sought  the  protection  of  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  marched  against  Damascus,  cap- 
tured the  city,  dragged  the  inhabitants  away  captive,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  kingdom  (b.  c.  740). 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  most  of  the  Phcenician  cities 
were  independent  states.  Tyre  is,  however,  the  only  one  whose  his- 
tory can  be  satisfactorily  traced.  Its  first  sovereign  was  Ab'ical  (about 
B.  c.  1050),  who  was  contemporary  with  David.  His  son  and  succes- 
sor, Hiram,  was  united  by  the  strictest  bonds  of  friendship  to  the  great 
Jewish  king,  and  also  to  his  son  Solomon.  During  the  reign  of  Hiram, 
Tyre  acquired  the  supremacy  of  Phcjenicia,  and  became  the  most  flour- 
ishing emporium  of  commerce  in  the  ancient  world. 

The  most  remarkable  successors  of  Hiram  were  Ethbaal  I.,  the 
father  of  the  wicked  Jez'ebel,  wife  of  Ahab,  in  whose  reign  some  im- 
portant colonies  were  planted  ir  Africa  ;  and  Pygmalion,  whose  murder 
of  SicliEe'us  led  to  the  foundation  of  Carthage  (about  b.  c.  900).  Dido, 
the  wife  of  Sichae'us,  aided  by  numerous  Tyrians,  escaped  by  sea  with 
her  husband's  treasures,  and  sought  a  new  country  on  the  northern 
shores  of  Africa.  Here  she  erected  the  city  of  Carthage,  wliich  soon 
rivalled  Tyre  itself  in  commercial  prosperity. 

The  Tyrians  exercised  their  supremacy  over  the  surrounding  cities 
with  so  much  cruelty,  that  the  Phoenicians  applied  for  protection  to  the 
Assyrians,  and  afterward  to  the  Babylonians.  The  Assyrians,  unable 
to  cope  with  the  Tyrians  by  sea,  retired,  leaving  the  city  uninjured. 
But  Nebuchadnez'zar  so  exhausted  Tyre  by  a  constant  blockade,  that 
it  was  almost  wholly  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants,  who  erected  the  city 


32  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  New  Tyre  upon  a  neighboring  island.  Soon  after  this  event,  a 
change  Avas  made  in  the  form  of  government ;  annual  magistrates, 
called  Shophetim,  or,  according  to  the  Greek  orthography,  Sufletes, 
being  chosen  instead  of  kings.  After  Cyrus  had  conquered  Babylon, 
the  Phoenician  cities  submitted  of  their  own  accord  (b.  c.  538)  ;  but 
though  they  became  dependancies  of  the  Persian  empire,  they  were 
permitted  to  retain  their  native  governments.  Tyre  again  became  sub- 
ject to  kings,  and  supplied  the  strength  of  the  Persian  naval  powei. 
It  was  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great  (b.  c.  332),  and  from  that  time  il 
.sunk  into  hopeless  decay. 

Section  VI. — Phcenician  Colonies  and  Foreign  Possessions. 

The  system  of  colonization  in  commercial  states  has  been  always 
the  greatest  aid  to  the  progress  of  civilization :  colonies  are  founded 
by  trading  nations  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  lucrative  commerce, 
by  establishing  a  market  for  the  manufactured  produce  of  the  parent 
state,  and  a  carrying-trade  for  its  merchants  and  seamen.  Such  colo- 
nies, unlike  the  military  establishments  of  despotic  states,  require  to  be 
placed  under  the  guidance  of  persons  advanced  in  political  knowledge^ 
who  know  how  to  vary  the  institutions  derived  from  the  government  at 
home,  so  as  to  suit  the  altered  circumstances  of  their  position  and  for- 
eign relations  :  hence  civil  liberty  has  always  advanced  more  rapidly 
in  commercial  colonies  than  in  the  states  from  which  they  were 
derived,  and  the  science  of  legislation  has  attained  greater  perfection 
than  in  more  ancient  establishments. 

In  commercial  states,  the  distinction  between  the  citizen  and  the 
soldier  is  very  strongly  marked  ;  and  most  commercial  states,  in  ancient 
and  modern  times  employed  foreign  mercenaries.  The  prophet  Eze- 
kiel,  whose  account  of  Tyre  is  the  most  perfect  record  of  its  ancient 
condition,  enumerates  the  countries  that  supplied  the  Tyrian  armies 
and  navies  Avith  warriors.* 

The  Phoenician  colonies  proceeded  from  east  to  west  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  occupying  the  principal  islands.  Cy'prus, 
called  in  Scripture  Kittim,  or  Chittim,  was  not  only  a  colony  but  a 
province  of  the  Tyrians,  and  vestiges  of  their  establishments  on  the 
island  still  exist.  I'rom  Cyprus  they  extended  their  settlements  to 
Crete  and  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Archipelago.  Thence  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Africa,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  spreading  their  cities  unequally 
along  the  coasts,  and  very  rarely  attempting  the  conquest  of  the  inte- 
rior. Their  establishments  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  indeed,  appear  to 
have  been  only  naval  stations  for  the  vessels  employed  in  the  trade 
with  western  Europe,  especially  with  Spain,  which  was  the  Mexico  or 
Peru  of  the  ancient  world.  The  Spanish  peninsula,  called  in  Scrip- 
ture Tar'shish,  from  the  city  Tartes'sus,  was  the  country  with  which 
the  Tyrians  had  the  most  lucrative  trade ;  and  the  colonies  they  estab- 
lished there  soon  became  independent  states.  It  would  seem  that  the 
T}Tians  were  by  no  means  anxious  to  retain  supremacy  over  their  col- 
onies, wisely  preferring  a  close  alliance,  cemented  by  common  descent, 

*  Ezekiel  xxvii.  8-11. 


SYRIA.  33 

anj^iaire,  and  religion,  to  a  hollow  dcpendance.  Colonies  were  also 
planted  beyond  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  or,  as  they  were  called  by  the 
ancients,  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  Trade  was  extended  to  the  British 
islands  and  the  coasts  of  the  North  sea,  which  must  have  led  to  the 
pstabUshment  of  colonies  and  naval  stations  along  the  western  and 
northern  coasts  of  Spain. 

The  colonies  in  northern  Africa,  Leptis,  Carthage,  Utica,  &c., 
attained  greater  splendor  than  any  of  the  other  Phoanician  cities,  and 
rivalled  Tyre  itself  in  wealth  and  magnificence.  It  is  exceedingly 
probable  that  they  had  also  settlements  in  western  Africa,  and  that  they 
had  even  reached  the  island  of  Madeira.  But  to  prevent  any  interfer- 
ence with  their  lucrative  commerce,  they  designedly  cast  a  veil  of 
mystery  over  their  intercourse  with  the  western  regions,  of  which  the 
Greek  poets  took  advantage  to  embellish  their  narratives  of  fictitious 
voyages  and  travels  with  the  most  fanciful  inventions. 

It  is  known  that  the  Phognicians  preceded  the  Greeks  in  forming 
comiiiercial  establishments  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  shores 
of  the  Black  sea ;  but  we  have  no  account  of  the  mode  in  which  they 
were  deprived  of  these  possessions  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  probable  that 
the  Phoenicians  resigned  this  branch  of  commerce  to  attend  more 
closely  to  their  lucrative  trade  with  the  western  resfions. 

In  the  eastern  seas  they  had  establishments  on  the  Persian  and  Ara- 
bian gulfs  ;  but  their  settlements  on  the  latter  were  probably  not  made 
until  David  had  conquered  their  commercial  rivals,  the  Edomites,  OT 
Idumeans.  From  that  time  they  paid  great  attention  to  their  southern 
trade,  and  seem  to  have  become  close  allies  of  the  Egyptians. 

Section  VII. — Phcenician  Manufactures  and  Commerce. 

The  textile  fabrics  of  the  Sidonians,  and  the  purple  cloths  of  the 
Tyrians,  were  celebrated  from  the  earliest  antiquity. 

The  Tyrian  purple  was  not  a  single  color,  but  was  a  generic  name 
for  all  the  shades  of  purple  and  scarlet.  The  dye  was  obtained  from 
a  shell-fish  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Vegetable  dyes  of  great  beauty  and  variety  were  also  used  \ 
the  dyeing  was  always  performed  in  the  raw  materials  ;  and  the  Phoe- 
nicians alone  understood  the  art  of  producing  shot  colors  by  using 
threads  of  different  tints.  Glass  was  very  anciently  manufactured  both 
at  Sidon  and  Sarepta  :  tradition,  indeed,  ascribes  the  invention  of  glasa 
to  the  Phoenicians ;  but  the  Egyptians  seem  to  have  a  claim  at  least  as 
good  to  the  discovery.  Carvings  in  wood  and  ivory,  manufactures  of 
jewelry  and  toys,  complete  all  that  has  been  recorded  of  the  products 
of  Tyrian  industry ;  and  it  seems  probable  that  their  commerce  con- 
sisted more  in  the  interchange  of  foreign  commodities  than  in  the  ex- 
port of  their  own  wrought  goods. 

The  land-trade  of  the  Phoenicians  may  be  divided  into  three  great 
branches  :  the  Arabian,  which  included  the  Egyptian  and  that  with  the 
Indian  seas ;  the  Babylonian,  to  which  is  referred  the  commerce  with 
central  Asia  and  north  India  ;  and  the  Armenian,  including  the  overland 
trade  wif.h  Scythia  and  the  Caucasian  countries. 

From  Yem'en,  called  Arabia  the  Happy,  the  southern  division  of  tlie 

3 


34  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Arabian  peninsula,  cara\ans  brought  through  the  desert  frankincense, 
myrrh,  cassia,  gold,  and  precious  stones,  the  gold  being  probably 
obtained  from  the  opposite  shores  of  Africa.  But  before  the  Phceni- 
cians  had  a  port  on  the  Red  sea,  they  obtained,  through  Arabia,  the 
produce  of  southern  India  and  Africa,  more  especially  cinnamon,  ivory, 
and  ebony.  This  trade  is  fully  described  by  Ezekiel,*  by  whom  the 
traffic  in  the  Persian  gulf  is  also  noticed. f 

The  Arabian  trade  appears  to  have  been  principally  carried  on  by 
caravans.  The  northern  Arabs,  especially  the  princes  of  Kedar  and  the 
Midianites,  were  in  ancient  times  great  travelling  merchants  :  and  the 
kingdom  of  Edom,  or  Idumsea,  in  the  north  of  the  Arabian  peninsula, 
attained  a  very  high  degree  of  commercial  prosperity.  On  the  seacoast 
the  Idumeans  possessed  the  ports  of  E'lath  and  E'zion-geber  (x\k'aba) ; 
in  the  interior,  they  had  for  their  metropolis  Petra,  whose  magnificent 
remains  have  been  but  recently  discovered.  So  permanent  and  almost 
immutable  is  the  aspect  of  civilization  in  Asia,  that  the  conunercial 
caravans  of  the  present  day  scarcely  differ  in  any  particular  from  those 
which  were  used  in  the  flourishing  days  of  Tyre.  The  merchants  trav- 
elled in  bands  organized  like  an  army,  having  their  goods  on  the  backs 
of  camels,  the  only  animals  which  can  endure  the  fatigues  and  priva- 
tions of  the  desert.  They  were  escorted  by  armed  forces,  sometimes 
supplied  from  home,  but  more  frequently  consisting  of  one  marauding 
tribe,  hired  at  a  large  price,  to  save  the  caravan  from  the  exactions  and 
attacks  of  the  rest.  The  greater  part  of  the  Phoenician  trade  with 
Egypt  was  overland,  at  least  so  long  as  the  seat  of  government  was  at 
Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt :  when  Mem'phis  rose  into  power,  an  entire 
quarter  of  the  city  was  assigned  to  the  Phoenician  merchants,  and  the 
trade  by  sea  to  the  mouths  of  the  Nile  grew  into  importance.  The 
first  branch  of  the  eastern  Phffinician  trade  was  with  Judaea  and  Syria 
Proper.|  The  dependance  of  the  Phoenicians  on  Palestine  for  grain 
fully  explains  the  cause  of  their  close  alliance  with  the  Jewish  king- 
dom in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 

But  the  most  important  branch  of  eastern  trade  was  that  through 
Bab'ylon  with  the  interior  of  Asia.  A  great  part  of  the  route  lay 
through  the  Syrian  desert ;  and  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  caravans, 
two  of  the  most  remarkable  cities  of  the  ancient  world,  Baal'bec  and 
Palmy'ra,  were  founded.  They  were  both  built  by  Solomon  :  "  he 
founded,"  says  the  Scripture,  "  Baalath  (Baal'bec)  and  Tadmor  (Pal- 
my'ra) in  the  desert."^  They  were  erected  by  that  wise  monarch  to 
procure  for  his  subjects  a  shtire  in  this  lucrative  traffic ;  but  this  object 
was  frustrated  by  the  subsoqucait  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  wars 
between  Israel  and  Judah. 

The  northern  land-trade  of  the  Phoenicians  is  described  by  no  an 
cient  writer  but  the  prophet  Ezekiel :  "  Javan  [Ionia,  and  the  Greek 
colonies].  Tubal,  and  Meshech  [ihe  countries  around  the  Black  and 
north  Caspian  seas],  they  were  thy  merchants  :  they  traded  the  persons 
of  men  and  vessels  of  brass  in  thy  markets.  They  of  the  house  of  To- 
gai-^mah  [Armenia  and  Cappadocia],  traded  in  thy  fairs  with  horses  and 
horsemen  and  mules."|| 

Ezekiel  xxvn.  19-23.  t  lb.  xxvii.  15. 

J  Ezekiel  xxvii.  17,  18.        §  1  Kings  ix.  18.        ||  Ezekiel  xxvii.  13,  J4. 


SYRIA.  35 

Eut  the  Mediterranean  sei  was  the  great  high  road  of  Phoenician 
*»imirtierce  :  it  probably  commenced  with  piracy  ;  for  in  the  infancy  of 
Giecmn  civilization,  we  find  frequent  mention  of  the  kidnapping  prac- 
tised oy  coitsairs  from  Tyre  and  Sidon.  But  when  Greece  advanced 
in  powoF,  aiid  Athens  and  Corinth  had  fleets  of  their  own,  the  Greeks 
became  tiie  rivals  and  political  enemies  of  the  Phoenicians,  purchasing 
from  them  only  such  articles  as  could  not  be  procured  from  their  own 
colonies  in  Asia  Miiior.  Spain  was  the  richest  country  of  the  ancient 
world  in  the  precious  metals.  The  Phoeaician  colonies  enslaved  the 
natives,  and  compehea  them  to  work  in  the  mines  :  these  metallic  pro- 
ductions are  enumerated  by  Liekiei.  ''  Tar'shish  [Tartes'sus,  or  south- 
western Spain],  was  thy  mei chant  by  reason  of  the  multitude  of  all 
kind  of  riches :  with  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lead,  they  traded  in  th** 
fairs."*  From  Spain  the  Phoenicians  entered  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and 
proceeded  to  the  south  of  the  British  islands,  where  they  procured  the 
tin  of  Cornwall ;  and  probably  to  the  coasts  of  Prussia  for  amber,  which 
in  the  ancient  world  was  deemed  more  precious  than  gold.  In  the 
eastern  seas,  the  Phoenicians  had  establishments  on  the  Arabian  and 
Persian  gulf,  whence  they  traded  with  the  coasts  of  India  and  Af- 
rica, and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  During  the  reign  of  Pharaoh-Necho, 
king  of  Egypt,  they  discovered  the  passage  roimd  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ;  but  this  led  to  no  important  results,  on  account  of  the  calamities 
that  Tyre  endured  from  the  invasion  of  Nebuchadnez'zar.  Though 
their  voyages  did  not  equal  in  daring  those  of  modern  times,  yet,  when 
we  consider  that  they  were  ignorant  of  the  mariner's  compass,  and  of 
the  art  of  taking  accurate  astronomical  observations,  it  is  wonderful  to 
reflect  on  the  commercial  enterprise  of  a  people  whose  ships  were  to 
be  seen  in  the  harbors  of  Britain  and  Ceylon. 

*  Ezekiel  xxvii.  12. 


36  ANCIENT  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  V. 
PALESTINE. 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline 

Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land,  lies  between  PhcBnicia  on  the  north, 
and  Idumse'a  on  the  south,  separat(;d  from  both  by  chains  of  lofty 
mountains ;  to  the  east  its  boundaries  were  the  Asphaltic  lake,  the 
river  Jordan,  and  the  sea  of  Galilee  ;  on  the  west  it  extended  to  the 
Mediterranean.  The  mountains  are  the  most  remarkable  features  in 
the  o-eography  of  Palestine.  These  mountains  divided  Palestine  into  a 
series  of  valleys  and  tablelands,  leaving  two  great  plains,  called  "  the 
region  about  Jordan,"  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  or  Jez'reel.  These 
valleys  and  plains  were  of  very  unequal  value  ;  some  were  so  unpro- 
ductive as  to  be  called  deserts,  others  were  the  most  fertile  spots  in 
western  Asia. 

Jordan  was  the  only  great  river  of  Palestine ;  it  falls  into  the  As- 
phaltic lake,  or  Dead  sea,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  cities 
Sod'om  and  Gomor'rah.  There  is  no  outlet  from  the  Asphaltic  lake, 
and  its  waters  are  bitter  and  unwholesome.  The  sea  of  Galilee, 
through  which  the  Jordan  flows,  is  a  beautiful  fresh-water  lake,  abound- 
ing in  fish. 

The  principal  cities  were  Jerusalem,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  and  Samaria,  the  capital  of  Israel.  Idumse'a  lay  south  of 
Palestine,  beyond  the  chain  of  Mount  Seir :  it  was  in  general  a  rocky 
and  barren  country ;  but  being  the  high  road  of  Arabian  traffic,  its  nat- 
ural capabilities  were  improved  to  the  utmost,  and  it  contained  the 
great  city  of  Petra,  whose  commercial  wealth  was  deservedly  celebra- 
ted. Idumffi'a,  or  Edom,  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the 
reign  of  David. 

The  valleys  of  Palestine  were  in  general  very  fruitful ;  and  the  va- 
ried elevations  of  the  country,  causing  so  many  different  climates,  gave 
the  country  a  greater  variety  of  natural  productions  than  is  usually 
found  in  so  confined  a  space. 

A  series  of  calamities,  unparalleled  in  any  other  portion  of  the  globe, 
has  now  reduced  Palestine  almost  to  sterility;  but  vwen  now  there  are 
spots  to  be  found  whose  luxuri?.nce  revives  the  memory  of  the  verdure 
and  beauty  that  once  covered  the  entire  country. 

Sfction  II. — History  of  Palestine. 
iROM    B.  c.  1920   TO    B.  c.  975. 

God  called  Abram  from  the  hnd  of  the  ChaHees  to  Palestine,  then 
aamed  Canaan,  to  be  the  founder  of  a  naticti  th?«  sk)uld  be  his  peculiar 


PALESTINE.  37 

people  (b.  c.  1920).  Abraham,  at  his  death  (b.  c.  1821),  transmitted 
the  inheritance  of  the  divine  promise  to  his  son  Isaac ;  and  he  was  de- 
ceived into  making  his  second  son  Jacob,  or  Israel,  the  heir  of  this 
glorious  privilege.  The  sons  of  Jacob  sold  their  brother  Joseph 
as  a  slave  to  some  Arabian  merchants,  by  whom  he  was  carried  into 
Egypt.  There  he  became  the  chief  minister  of  the  Pharaoh  of  Egypt ; 
his  brethren  having  come  into  that  country  to  purchase  corn,  he  made 
himself  known  to  them,  and  invited  his  father,  with  his  whole  family, 
to  dwell  to  the  rich  district  of  Goshen  (b.  c.  1705).  In  process  of 
time,  the  Israelites  became  so  numerous  as  to  excite  the  envious  alarm 
of  the  Egyptians :  they  were  in  consequence  cruelly  persecuted,  until 
God  raised  up  Moses  as  their  deliverer.  The  miraculous  plagues  he 
inflicted  on  the  land  of  Egypt  induced  the  reigning  Pharaoh  to  consent 
to  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  (b.  c.  1491).  Hepenting  of  his  per- 
mission, he  pursued  them  with  a  mighty  host ;  but  he  and  all  his  fol- 
lowers perished  in  the  Red  sea. 

After  the  miraculous  deliverance  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  Egyptian 
army,  and  their  safe  passage  through  the  Red  sea,  it  seemed  as  if  their 
chief  difficulties  had  been  overcome  ;  that  with  Jehoiah  ^^r  their  pro- 
tector, and  Moses  for  their  guide,  they  would  soon  reach  the  frontiers 
of  Canaan,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  subduing  its  idolatrous  inhabitants. 
Were  there  no  other  difficulties  to  be  overcome  than  the  ruggedness  of 
the  way,  and  the  hostility  of  the  various  warlike  races  in  and  round 
Palestine,  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  would  soon  have  terminated, 
but  during  their  protracted  bondage  they  had  been  deeply  imbued  with 
all  the  vices  of  slavery ;  they  had  become  stubborn,  rebellious,  and  in- 
constant ;  they  vacillated  between  the  extremes  of  cowardice  and 
rashness,  and  they  had  acquired  an  almost  invincible  fondness  for  idol- 
atry and  superstition,  which  proved  a  constant  source  of  misfortunes  to 
themselves  and  of  the  most  harassing  vexations  to  their  leader. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  third  month  after  the  departure  from  Goshen, 
the  Israelites  reached  the  plains  around  Sin'ai,  where  amid  the  most 
awful  manifestations  of  the  Divine  presence,  Moses  ascended  the 
mountain,  and  received  from  the  Lord  the  sacred  code  of  laws  by  which 
the  Israelites  were  thenceforth  to  be  ruled  under  God's  immediate  gov- 
ernment, and  which  was  moreover  designed,  both  by  its  moral  and 
ceremonial  institutions,  to  be  "  a  schoolmaster  to  the  Jews  to  bring 
them  unto  Christ."  The  constitution  thus  given  to  the  Israelites  may 
be  described  as  a  theocracy ;  that  is,  a  government  in  which  God  him- 
self was  the  sovereign,  communicating  his  will  by  certain  authorized 
ministers.  The  priests  through  whom  the  Divine  commands  were 
made  known,  could  only  be  chosen  from  the  descendants  of  Aaron  ;  and 
all  the  inferior  ministers  of  religion  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi.  A'l 
the  institutions  appointed  for  the  people  were  directed  to  one  great  ob- 
ject,  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  religious  worship :  the  Israelitef 
were  not  chosen  to  be  the  most  wealthy  or  most  powerful  of  nations, 
but  to  be  the  guardians  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  until  the  ar- 
rival of  that  divine  Savior  who  was  to  unite  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  as 
one  flock,  under  one  shepherd.  While  Moses  continued  on  the  mount, 
the  Israelites,  impatient  at  his  long  absence,  formed  a  golden  calf,  oi 
representation  of  a  young  bull,  as  an  object  for  their  idolatrous  worship 


38  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

When  Moses,  who  had  been  now  forty  days  on  the  mount,  learned 
from  the  Lord  the  crime  of  which  the  people  had  been  guilty,  he  hastily 
descended  tow  ard  the  camp  ;  as  he  approached,  the  sight  of  the  people, 
dancing  round  the  object  of  their  stupid  veneration,  filled  him  with  such 
wrath  that  he  broke  the  tables  of  stone  on  which  the  Ten  Commaad- 
ments  had  been  graven  by  "  the  finger  of  God."  The  tribe  of  Levi, 
which  seems  not  to  have  participated  in  the  national  guilt,  slew  three 
thousand  of  the  worst  criminals  ;  the  idol  was  broken  to  pieces,  and  the 
people  compelled  to  drink  the  water  with  which  its  dust  had  been  min- 
gled ;  and  atonement  having  been  made  for  the  sin,  Moses  again 
ascended  the  mountain,  and,  after  an  absence  of  forty  days,  returned 
with  two  new  tables  of  commandments,  in  place  of  those  that  had  been 
broken. 

Having  broken  up  the  encampment  at  Sin'ai,  the  Israelites  directed 
their  march  to  the  frontiers  of  Canaan ;  but  notwithstanding  all  the 
signs  and  wonders  that  had  been  wrought  in  their  favor,  they  broke  out 
into  acts  of  rebellion  against  Moses,  and  on  every  trifling  occasion  pro- 
voked, by  their  seditions,  severe  chastisements  from  the  righteous  anger 
of  the  Almighty  ;  until,  at  length  upon  the  very  borders  of  the  promised 
land,  for  their  rebellious  murmurings  at  the  report  of  the  spies,  the  Lord 
ordained  that  none  of  the  existing  generation  should  enter  the  promised 
land,  except  Joshua  and  Caleb.  Forty  years  of  wandering  in  the  Des- 
ert were  to  expiate  the  national  crime,  after  which  a  new  generation 
was  to  inherit  the  promise  made  to  Abraham. 

In  their  wanderings,  the  miraculous  pillar,  which  had  guided  them 
from  Egypt,  continued  still  to  direct  them,  and  the  marma  to  nourish 
them ;  their  raiment  and  their  shoes  suffered  no  decay,  and  their  feet 
were  unhurt,  by  their  long  and  frequent  marches.  Notwithstanding 
these  signal  proofs  of  the  Divine  protection,  the  children  of  Israel  fre- 
quently rebelled  against  Moses,  and  provoked  severe  chastisements 
from  their  offended  God. 

Thirty-eight  years  after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  the  march  to 
Canaan  was  resumed ;  but  being  defeated  in  their  first  attempt,  and, 
though  more  successful  on  a  second  trial,  finding  the  western  frontiers 
of  Palestine  difficult,  the  Israelites  resolved  to  make  a  circuit,  and  at- 
tack the  country  more  to  the  eastward.  On  this  march,  Moses  and 
Aaron,  having  evinced  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  divine  power,  were 
included  in  the  sentence  of  not  being  permitted  to  enter  the  promised 
land.  t, 

Commanded  by  God  to  regard  the  descendants  of  Esau  as  their 
brethren,  the  Hebrew  army  avoided  the  land  of  Edom,  turning  their 
course  northward,  encountering  various  enemies,  who  tried  to  impede 
their  passage.  They  gained  signal  victories  over  Sihon,  king  of  the 
Amorites,  and  Og,  the  gigantic  ruler  of  Basan,  and  spread  the  terror  of 
their  name  through  the  surrounding  nations.  In  a  pitched  battle,  which 
the  Israelites  fought  also  against  five  kings  of  Mid'ian,  the  confederate 
monarchs  fell ;  a  terrible  slaughter  was  made  of  their  subjects,  the 
cities  of  the  land  were  taken  and  sacked,  and  a  considerable  booty 
brought  to  Moses  and  Eleazar,  the  latter  of  whom  had  succeeded  Aaron 
in  the  priesthood. 

Immediately  a^ter  the  punishment  of  the  Midianites,  Moses,  by  the 


PALESTINE.  39 

divine  direction,  took  a  census  of  the  people,  and  assigned  to  the  tribes 
by  lot  their  future  inheritance  in  Canaan.  He  found  that  all  the  old 
murmuring  generation,  save  .Joshua  and  Caleb,  had  disappeared,  as  God 
had  foretold.  Being  warned  that  his  own  end  was  approaching,  he 
solemnly  constituted  Joshua  his  successor,  and  assembling  the  people 
recapitulated  all  the  miracles  which  God  had  wrought  in  their  favoi 
since  their  departure  from  Egypt,  and  exhorted  them  to  be  firm  in  their 
allegiance  to  Jehovah,  setting  before  them  the  blessings  promised  for 
obedience,  and  the  curses  denounced  against  idolatry.  Having  thus 
completed  his  task,  he  ascended  Mount  Nebo,  by  God's  commar.d, 
whence  he  was  gratified  with  a  view  of  the  promised  land  ;  after  which 
he  breathed  his  last,  in  the  one  hundredth  and  twentieth  year  of  hia 
age  (b.  c.  1451).  The  place  of  his  burial  ivas  carefully  concealed, 
probably  to  prevent  the  Israelites  from  making  his  tomb  an  object  of 
idolatrous  veneration. 

Section  III. —  The  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua, 

Nothing  less  than  the  strongest  assurance  of  divine  aid  could  have 
supported  Joshua's  courage  in  so  arduous  an  enterprise.  He  was  now 
ninety-three  years  of  age,  and  wanted  neither  experience  nor  sagacity 
to  foresee  the  perils  which  he  had  to  encounter.  Though  at  the  head 
of  six  hundred  thousand  fighting  men,  his  army  was  encumbered  by  a 
multitude  of  old  men,  women,  and  children,  beside  servants  and  cattle ; 
before  him  was  a  large  river,  which  he  was  to  cross,  equally  exposed  to 
the  arms  of  those  he  went  to  attack,  and  those  he  left  behind.  The  na- 
tions he  had  to  subdue  were  warlike,  remarkable  for  their  personal 
strength  and  gigantic  stature  ;  their  towns  were  well  fortified  by  nature 
and  art ;  their  forces  and  interests  qemented  by  mutual  treaties  ;  they 
had  long  been  aware  of  the  meditated  invasion,  and  had  made  formi' 
d-jJjle  preparations  for  the  defence  of  their  country.  •  * 

The  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh»pre- 
ferred  settling  in  the  land  east  of  the  Jordan,  but  they  sent  a  contingent 
of  forty  thousand  men  to  aid  their  brethren  in  the  subjugation  of  Ca- 
naan. 

Passing  over  the  river  Jordan  by  a  miraculous  passage,  the  Israelites 
celebrated  the  feast  of  the  .passover,  which  had  been  intermitted  since 
their  encampment  on  Sin'ai,  from  the  want  of  corn  to  prepare  unleav- 
ened bread  ;  now,  also,  that  they  were  in  a  productive  land;'*the  mirac- 
ulous supply  of  manna  ceased,  being  no  longer  necessary.  So  great 
was  the  alarm  of  the  Cailaanites,  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  interrupt 
the  Israelites  while  -celebrating  this  solemn  feast ;  when  it  was  conclu 
ded,  they  advanced  against  the  fortified  city  of  Jer'icho,  which  was 
straightly  shut  up  because  of  the  children  of  Israel, — "  none  went  out, 
an.d  none  came  in.  By  divine  command,  Joshua  made  no  military 
preparations  for  the  siege  of  this  important  place,  but  led  the  army 
round  the  city  once  a  day  for  six  days,  preserving  strict  silence,  broken 
only  by  the  sound  of  the  sacred  trumpets  which  accompanied  the  Ark 
of  the  Covenant.  On  the  seventh  day,  the  people  "  compassed  the 
city,  after  the  same  mann(!r,  seven  times ;  and  it  came  to  pass  at  the 
eeventh  time,  when  the  priests  blew  with  the  trumpets,  Joshua  said  un- 


40  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

lo  the  people,  Shout,  for  the  Lord  hath  given  you  the  city.  And 

the  people  shouted  with  a  great  shout,  that  the  wall  fell  down  flat,  so 
that  the  ])eople  went  up  into  the  city,  every  man  straight  before  him, 
and  they  took  the  city." 

The  king  of  A'i  next  became  the  victim  of  a  stratagem  devised  by 
Joshua,  and  its  citizens  were  utterly  exterminated.  Great  fear  spread 
over  the  land  of  Canaan  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  Jer'ichc 
and  A'i  ;  the  Gibeonites,  anxious  to  escape  from  impending  ruin,  sought 
a  treaty  of  peace  from  Joshua,  and  obtained  it  by  pretending  to  be  na- 
tives of  a  distant  country. 

Adonized'ec,  king  of  Jerusalem,  was  greatly  enraged  when  he  heard 
that  the  Gibeonites  had  deserted  the  common  cause ;  he  sent  jnbas- 
sies  to  four  of  the  neighboring  princes  to  aid  him  in  punishing  their 
defection  ;  they  readily  assented,  and  "  went  up,  they  and  all  their  hosts, 
and  encamped  before  Gibeon,  and  made  war  against  it."  Joshua  imme- 
diately marched  to  their  deliverance.  The  five  kings  were  completely 
routed  ;  at  Joshua's  command  "  the  sun  stood  still  and  the  moon  stayed, 

until  the  people  had  avenged  themselves  upon  their  enemies 

And  there  was  no  day  like  that  before  it  or  after  it,  that  the  Lord 
hearkened  unto  the  voice  of  a  man ;  for  the  Lord  fought  for  Israel." 

During  the  space  of  seven  years,  the  Israelites  were  almost  inces- 
santly engaged  in  completing  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  but  they  met 
with  no  very  formidable  resistance  after  the  memorable  battle  against 
the  five  kings  before  Gibeon.  They  did  not  however  wholly  extermi- 
aate  the  idolatrous  tribes,  as  the  Lord  had  commanded ;  they  became 
weary  of  the  protracted  warfare,  and  the  warriors  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and 
Manasseh,  were  naturally  anxious  to  return  to  their  families  beyond 
Jordan.  This  impolitic  act  of  disobedience  was  subsequently  produc- 
tive of  fatal  consequences,  for  the  surviving  Canaanites  eagerly  sought 
and  embraced  every  opportunity  of  taking  revenge  for  the  extermina- 
tion of  their  brethren.  Even  in  peace  they  were  scarcely  less  danger- 
ous to  the  prosperity  of  the  chosen  people  than  in  war,  for  they  fre- 
^quently  seduced  the  Israelites  to  join  in  the  impure  and  impious  rites 
of  their  licentious  idolatry. 

Soon  after  tranquillity  had  been  established  in  Palestine,  and  the  dif- 
ferent tribes  and  families  had  taken  possession  of  their  allotted  portions, 
Joshua  died,  at  the  advanced  age  of  one  hundred  and  ten,  having  ruled 
the  country  as  wisely  as  he  had  conquered  it  bravely :  "  And  Israel 
served  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  Joshua,  and  all  the  days  of  the  elders 
that  overlived  Joshua,  and  which  had  known  all  the  works  of  the  Lord 
that  he  had  done  for  Israel." 

Section  IV. — History  of  Israel  under  the  Judges. 

Under  the  theocracy,  as  established  by  Moses,  the  civil  government 
of  Israel  was  to  be  administered  by  Shophetim,  or  Judges,  nominated 
by  the  divine  oracle,  the  mysterious  Uiim  and  Tkummim,  which  were 
in  the  custody  of  the  high-priest ;  but  after  the  death  of  Joshua  the 
Israelites  frequently  apostatized  to  idolatry,  the  oracles  of  God  were 
neglected,  the  appointment  of  chief  magistrates  omitted.  The  tribe  of 
fudah  at  first  actively  engaged  in  completing  the  conquest  which  had 


PALESTINE.  41 

been  left  imperfect,  but  otners  entered  into  compact  with  the  Canaan 
ites,  and  were  so  insnared  by  the  beauty  of  their  women  as  to  contract 
affinities  with  them.  Tliese  intermarriages  soon  reconciled  them  to  the 
worship  of  the  false  gods  of  the  heathen,  and  provoked  tlie  Almighty 
to  deliver  them  over  to  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  God  permitted 
the  idolatrous  Israelites  to  be  subdued  by  the  king  of  Mesopotamia, 
who  held  them  in  subjection  for  nearly  eight  years  ;  but  on  their  repent- 
ance, Oth'niel  was  raised  up  to  be  their  deliverer,  and  under  his  admin- 
istration "  they  had  rest  forty  years."  A  second  defection  was  pun- 
ished by  a  servitude  to  the  Moabites  for  eighteen  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  E'hud  slew  the  king  of  Moab,  delivered  Israel,  and  restored 
peace.  Sham'gar,  the  third  judge,  repelled  the  incursions  of  the  Phil- 
istines, and  slew  six  hundred  of  them  with  an  ox-goad.  But  "the 
children  of  Israel  again  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  vvhen  E'hud 
was  dead.  And  the  I^ord  sold  them  into  the  hand  of  Jabin,  king  of 
Canaan."  For  twenty  years  the  Israelites  groaned  under  the  yuke  of 
this  despot,  but  they  were  at  length  delivered  by  the  prophetess  Deb''- 
orah,  aided  by  Barak,  a  leader  of  established  reputation. 

A  new  apostacy  was  punished  by  a  more  severe  servitude  ;  "  the 
Lord  delivered  them  into  the  hand  of  Midian  seven  years.  And  the 
hand  of  Midian  prevailed  against  Israel ;  and  because  of  the  Midian- 
ites,  the  children  of  Israel  made  them  the  dens  which  are  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  caves,  and  strongholds."  The  liberator  chosen  to  deliver  the 
Israelites  from  this  miserable  bondage  was  Gid'eon,  who,  with  only 
three  hundred  men,  made  a  night  attack  on  the  camp  of  the  Midianites. 
Thrown  into  confusion  by  the  unexpected  assault,  and  deceived  as  to 
the  number  of  their  enemies,  the  Midianites  turned  their  arms  against 
each  other,  and  finally  fled  in  disorder.  They  were  vigorously  pur- 
sued, great  numbers  were  slain,  an  immense  quantity  of  valuable  spoils 
taken,  and  the  freedom  of  Israel  restored. 

Under  Gid^eon's  administration,  "  the  land  had  rest  for  forty  years ;" 
but  after  his  death  the  people  of  Shechem,  at  the  instigation  of  Abim'- 
elech,  a  natural  son  of  Gid'eon,  slew  all  the  legitimate  children  of 
Gid'eon  except  the  youngest,  and  proclaimed  Abim'elech  king.  This 
dreadful  crime  produced  a  civil  war,  and  the  fratricide  was  liimself 
afterward  killed  by  a  woman. 

There  was  nothing  remarkable  in  the  administration  of  the  judges 
Tola  an(f  Jair ;  but  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  idolatry  of  the 
Israelites  became  so  gross,  that  God  delivered  them  into  the  hands  of 
the  Philistines  and  the  Ammonites.  In  their  distress,  the  children  of 
Israel,  probably  by  divine  direction,  applied  to  Jeph'thah,  the  natural 
son  of  Gil'ead,  who,  having  been  refused  a  share  of  his  father's  inher- 
itance, had  become  the  chief  of  a  predatory  band  beyond  Jordan. 

.Jeph'thah  was  succeeded  by  Ib'zan,  E'lon,  and  Ab'don,  of  whom 
nothing  remarkable  is  recorded.  They  were  followed  by  E'li,  who 
united  in  his  person  the  office  of  high-priest  and  judge.  Under  his 
administration,  the  apostacy  of  the  Israelites  was  punished  by  their 
being  delivered  over  to  the  Philistines,  who  harassed  them  for  nearly 
forty  years.  These  oppressors  deprived  the  Israelites  of  all  their 
weapons  of  war,  and  of  the  means  of  procuring  others. 

During  this  period  appeared  Sara'son,  the  most  extraordinary  of  the 


*2  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

Jewish  heroes,  whose  birth  and  prowess  were  mirsculously  foretold  to 
both  his  parents.  During  his  Hie  he  harassed  the  PhiUstines,  slaugh- 
tering them  with  wonderful  displays  of  strength ;  and  by  his  last  act,  in 
pulling  upon  himself  and  upon  his  enemies  the  temple  of  theii  national 
god,  in  which  a  general  assembly  of  the  people  were  gathered,  the  dead 
which  "  he  slew  at  his  death  were  more  than  they  which  he  slew  in 
his  life." 

The  Israelites  were  too  disorganized  to  take  advantage  of  ihii 
extraordinary  slaughter  of  the  Philistine  lords  ;  E'li,  their  judge,  vva* ' 
nearly  one  hundred  years  old,  and  his  two  sons,  Hoph'ni  and  Phin' 
ehas,  who  acted  under  him,  took  advantage  of  his  weakness  to  commiv 
the  most  profligate  abominations.  Samuel,  wliom  God  had  called  i^ 
his  youth  to  become  a  prophet  and  the  future  judge  of  Israel,  was 
commanded  by  the  Lord  to  denounce  divine  vengeance  agaiust  E'li ; 
after  Avhich  he  became  generally  known  as  an  inspired  person,  divinely 
chosen  to  be  E'li's  successor. 

Samuel,  though  still  a  youth,  Avas  chosen  judge  of  Israel  after  the 
death  of  E'li.  He  assembled  the  people,  and  impressed  upon  them  the 
criminality  and  folly  of  their  idolatry ;  they  were  convinced  by  his 
reasoning,  and  put  away  their  strange  deities,  promising  to  serve  the 
Lord  alone.  They  were  rewarded  by  a  signal  victory  over  the  Philis- 
tines ;  after  which  the  land  had  rest  during  the  remainde/  of  Samuel's 
administration. 

When  Samuel  had  judged  Israel  twenty  years,  he  appointed  his  two 
sons  to  assist  him ;  but  these  young  men,  like  the  sous  of  E'li,  per- 
verted justice,  and  the  elders  of  Israel  unanimously  demanded  a  king 
to  rule  over  them  like  other  nations.  Samuel  remoiisirated  with  them 
for  thus  abandoning  their  peculiar  distinction  of  havmg  the  Lord  for 
their  king ;  but  when  the  demand  was  renewed  more  urgently,  on  a 
threatened  invasion  of  the  Ammonites,  he  was  directed  by  the  Lord  to 
comply  with  the  popular  request.  According  to  the  divine  instructions 
he  selected  Saul,  the  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  be  the 
first  monarch  of  the  Israelites  (b.  c.  1095).  He  was  presented  to  the 
tribes  dt  Miz'peh,  "  and  Samuel  said  to  all  the  people.  See  ye  him 
whom  the  Lord  hath  chosen,  that  there  is  none  like  him  among  all  the 
people  ?     And  all  the  people  shouted  and  said,  God  save  the  king !" 

Section  V. — History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel. 

Many  of  the  Israelites  were  discontented  with  the  choice  that  had 
been  made  of  a  monarch.  But  these  symptoms  of  discontent  were 
Boon  checked  by  the  signal  proof  which  Saul  gave  of  his  military 
qualifications.  Nahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  invaded  Israel,  and  laid 
siege  to  Jabesh-Gil'ead ;  the  inhabitants  proposed  to  capitulate,  but 
Nahash  sternly  replied,  "  On  this  condition  will  I  make  a  covenant 
with  you,  that  I  may  thrust  out  all  your  right  eyes,  and  lay  it  as  a 
reproach  upon  Israel."  When  this  intelligence  reached  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Israelites,  they  burst  into  loud  lamentations ;  but  Saul 
commanded  an  instant  levy  of  the  people.  A  numerous  body  of  sol- 
diers obeyed  the  summons  ;  Saul  marched  against  the  Ammonites,  and 
defeated  them  so  effectually,  that  not  two  of  them  were  left  together 


PALESTINE!. 


43 


So  delighted  were  the  people  with  this  victory,  that  they  proposed  to 
punish  with  death  all  who  had  resisted  the  elevation  of  their  young 
monarch ;  but  Saul  said,  "  There  shall  not  be  a  man  put  to  death  this 
day  ;  for  to-day  the  Lord  hath  wrought  salvation  in  Israel."  A  solemn 
assembly  of  the  tribes  was  then  convoked  at  Gil'gal,  in  order  that  the 
people  should  renew  their  allegiance.  Here  Samuel  resigned  his  ofRce. 

Saul  was  aided  in  his  governm^ent  by  his  son  Jonathan,  a  young  man 
of  heroic  valor  and  the  most  generous  disposition.  With  a  select  bavid, 
he  attacked  and  stormed  the  Philistine  garrison  at  Geba,  which  neces- 
sarily led  to  war.  The  Israelites  were  badly  prepared  for  hostilities, 
and  when  the  tribes  met  at  Gil'gal,  they  showed  the  greatest  timidity 
and  confusion.  They  were  also  disheartened  by  the  absence  of  Sam- 
uel, whose  duty  it  was  to  offer  the  solemn  sacrifice,  and  began  to  dis- 
perse ;  Saul,  alarmed  lest  be  should  be  entirely  deserted,  offered  the 
solemn  sacrifice  himself;  but  the  ceremony  was  not  concluded  when 
Samuel  appeared,  and  announced  to  the  too  hasty  monarch,  that  for  this 
wilful  violation  of  the  law,  the  kingdom  should  not  be  hereditary  in  his 
fomlly.  The  Philistines,  advancing  with  an  immense  army,  blockaded 
Saul,  who  had  only  about  six  hundred  men  under  his  command  in  the 
mountains  of  Gib'eah,  but  he  was  unexpectedly  liberated  from  his  dif- 
ficulties by  the  daring  valor  of  his  son  Jonathan,  who,  accompanied  only 
by  his  armor-bearer,  attacked  a  Philistine  outpost,  and  spread  such  a 
panic  through  the  whole  army  that  they  were  easily  routed  by  Saul. 

After  this  victory,  Saul  led  his  forces  against  the  different  nations 
that  harassed  ihe  frontiers  of  his  kingdom ;  when  these  had  been  re- 
strained from  their  incursions,  Samuel,  by  the  direction  of  the  Lord, 
commanded  Saul  to  execute  divine  vengeance  on  the  Amalekites,  who 
nad  been  long  the  most  bitter  enemies  of  the  chosen  people.  Saul 
smote  the  Amalekites  with  great  slaughter  ;  but,  in  direct  violation  of 
the  Divhie  prohibitions,  he  spared  the  life  of  A'gag,  their  king,  and 
brought  away  with  him  a  vast  booty  of  cattle.  Samuel  bitterly  re- 
proached the  king  for  his  ingratitude  to  God,  and  announced  to  Saul 
that  his  disobedience  should  be  punished  by  the  loss  of  his  kingdom, 
which  the  Lord  would  transfer  to  a  more  worthy  person. 

Samuel  departed  from  Saul,  whom  he  never  again  visited  :  directed 
by  God,  he  went  to  the  family  of  Jes'se,  in  Bethlehem  of  Judah, 
where  he  anointed  David,  Jcs'se's  youngest  son,  who  thenceforth  was 
gifted  with  supernatural  endowments.  In  the  meantime,  Saul  became 
subject  to  fits  of  phrensy  and  melancholy,  which  his  servants  supposed 
could  be  best  dispelled  by  the  influence  of  music  :  they  therefore  sent 
for  David,  whose  skill  on  the  harp  was  already  celebrated,  and  his  ex- 
quisite skill  frequently  enabled  him  to  dispel  the  gloom  that  depressed 
the  king's  spirits.  The  Philistines,  probably  encouraged  by  secret  in- 
formation of  Saul's  unhappy  condition,  renewed  the  war  against  Israel, 
and  Saul  led  out  an  army  to  protect  the  frontiers.  While  the  hostile 
forces  were  encamped  in  sight  of  each  other,  the  gigantic  Goliath  of 
Gath  came  forth  as  champion  of  the  Philistines,  and  challenged  any 
Israelite  warrior  to  contend  against  him ;  all  were  daunted  by  the  stat- 
ure, strength,  and  ferocity  of  the  giant.  At  length  David  presented 
himself  to  the  combat,  armed  only  with  his  staff  and  a  sling  :  the  vaunt- 
mg  Philistine  treated  the  young  hero  with  contempt,  but  a  stone  irona 


44  ;\NC1ENT  HISTORY. 

the  sling,  striking  liim  full  in  the  forehead,  penetrated  to  the  brain,  and 
laid  him  prostrate  on  the  earth  Disheartened  by  the  loss  of  their 
champion,  the  Philistines  fled  in  confusion,  and  were  pursued  with 
great  slaughter  beyond  the  frontiers  of  their  own  country. 

David's  distinguished  valor  led  to  a  warm  and  sincere  friendship  be- 
tween him  and  Jonathan,  but  it  excited  bitter  jealousy  in  the  mind  of 
Saul.  The  marriage  of  David  to  Michal,  Saul's  daughter,  did  not  allay 
the  king's  jealous  hatred ;  he  openly  declared  his  intention  of  putting 
his  son-in-law  to  death,  and  took  active  measures  for  the  purpose. 
Once  David  was  saved  by  the  stratagem  of  his  wife,  and  again  by  the 
vigilant  friendship  of  Jonathan ;  but  he  saw  tjjat  he  was  no  longer  sure 
of  his  life,  if  he  remained  within  the  reach  of  Saul,  and  therefore  sought 
safety  in  exile.  After  a  brief  residence  among  the  Philistines,  he  re- 
turned to  Palestine,  and  became  the  leader  of  a  band  of  men  of  broken 
fortimes,  compelled  to  endure  all  the  vicissitudes  of  such  a  perilous 
life.  He  was  closely  pursued  by  his  vindictive  enemy,  Saul,  and  twice 
had  it  in  his  power  to  destroy  his  persecutor.  But  he  was  too  loyal 
"  to  lift  his  ]iand  against  the  Lord's  anointed ;"  he  therefore  only  in- 
formed Saul  of  the  danger  to  which  he  had  been  exposed,  and  thus 
proved  his  own  innocence.  These  events  led  to  a  temporary  recon- 
ciliation ;  but  David,  having  reason  to  fear  that  Saul  meditated  treach- 
ery, withdrew  to  the  court  of  A^chish,  one  of  the  kings  of  the  Philis- 
tines. 

Tlie  death  of  Samuel  left  Saul  in  a  most  wretched  condition ;  the 
prophets  fled  from  him,  the  priests  were  slaughtered,  "  and  when  Saul 
inquired  of  the  Lord,  the  Lord  answered  him  not,  neither  by  dreams, 
nor  by  Urim,  nor  by  prophets."  At  this  crisis,  the  Philistines  invaded 
the  country  with  a  numerous  army.  Saul  was  encamped  on  Mount 
Gil'boa,  with  forces  far  inferior  to  the  enemy.  Eager  to  learn  some- 
thing of  his  fate,  he  resolved  to  consult  one  of  those  unlawful  diviners 
who  had  been  in  better  times  severely  proscribed ;  he  was  conducted 
by  his  servants  to  a  woman  residing  near  En'dor,  "  who  had  a  familiar 
spirit,"  and  he  persuaded  her  to  evoke  Samuel  from  the  tomb.  The 
image  of  the  prophet  appeared,  and  predicted  to  the  terrified  monarch 
the  fatal  news  of  his  approacliing  defeat  and  death  (b,  c.  1055).  On 
the  second  morning  after  this  vision,  Saul  entered  the  last  of  his  fields ; 
the  Israelites  had  long  neglected  the  use  of  the  bow,  and  to  their  su- 
periority in  this  weapon  the  Philistines  chiefly  owed  their  victory : 
"the  battle  went  sore  against  Saul,  and  the  archeis  hit  him,  and  he  was 
sore  wounled  of  the  archers."  Afraid  of  falling  alive  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies,  he  fell  upon  his  own  sword ;  his  gallant  sons  had  pre- 
riously  fallen,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Hebrew  army  was  complete. 

David  had  just  returned  to  Zik'lag  from  pursuing  the  Amalekites, 
when  he  heard  of  the  calamitous  result  of  the  battle  on  Mount  Gilboa. 
Having  consulted  the  Lord  as  to  his  future  proceedings,  he  was  di- 
rected to  go  to  Heb'ron,  where  he  was  anointed  king  over  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  regarded  him  as  the  champion  of  their  race.  In  the  mean- 
itime,  Ab'ner,  Saul's  general,  prevailed  upon  the  northern  tribes  to  elect 
Ish'bosheth,  Saul's  son,  their  monarch,  and  he  removed  him  to  Ma- 
hanaim,  which  was  beyond  Jordan,  in  order  that  he  might  have  time  to 
recruit  his  shattered  army.     One  of  David's  earliest  measures  was  to 


PALESTINE 


45 


Bend  a  message  of  thanks  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jabcsh-Gil'ead  for  tneir 
honorable  conduct  to  the  deceased  king  and  his  sons  :  he  next  caused 
the  young  men  of  Judah  to  be  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  and 
they  soon  rivalled  the  Philistines  in  archery. 

War  was  soon  declared  between  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  : 
Joab,  who  commanded  David's  forces,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  Ab'- 
ner,  Ish'bosheth's  general,  and  from  that  time  David's  power  began 
rapidly  to  increase.  Ab'ner,  while  exerting  himself  to  strengthen  Ish'- 
bosheth,  incurred  the  displeasure  of  that  prince  ;  he  therefore  resolved 
to  seek  a  reconciliation  with  David,  whom  he  visited  in  the  character 
of  a  mediator,  but  on  his  return  he  was  treacherously  slain  by  Joab, 
who  probably  feared  that  Ab'ner  would  become  a  powerful  rival.  The 
death  of  Ab'ner  disheartened  the  supporters  of  Ish'bosheth  ;  two  of  his 
captains  murdered  him  in  liis  bed,  and  brought  the  new ;  to  David,  but 
instead  of  being  rewarded  as  they  hoped,  they  suff"ered  the  punishment 
of  treason.  No  other  claimant  appearing  lor  the  throne,  the  heads  of 
all  the  tribes  of  Israel  came  to  Heb'ron,  and  recognised  David  as  their 
sovereign.  But  the  breach  which  had  taken  place  between  the  north- 
ern -vnd  southern  tribes  was  never  completely  healed  ;  they  continued 
to  regard  themselves  as  distinct  in  policy  and  interest,  until  they  were 
finally  divided  into  separate  states  by  the  folly  of  Rehoboam. 

The  city  of  Jerusalem  had  long  been  held  by  the  Jebusites,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  of  the  east,  were  a  tribe  of  the  wandering  and 
plundering  Hyk'sos.  David  resolved  to  besiege  this  important  city 
with  all  the  forces  of  his  kingdom  ;  the  place  was  carried  by  storm, 
and  David  was  so  pleased  with  the  situation  of  the  place  that  he  made 
it  the  capital  of  his  dominions. 

The  Philistines  were  alarmed  at  the  increasing  power  of  David  ;  as- 
sembling all  their  forces,  they  crossed  the  frontier,  took  Bethlehem  by 
storm,  and  compelled  David  for  a  while  to  seek  shelter  in  the  cave  of 
Adul'lam  ;  but  the  Hebrew  king  soon  gathered  his  forces,  and  he  so 
utterly  routed  the  Philistines  in  two  successive  engagements  that  they 
never  more  were  able  to  compete  with  him  or  any  of  his  successors. 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  entered  into  a  firm  alliance  with  the  victorious 
monarch,  and  supplied  him  with  workmen  and  materials  to  erect  a 
palace  in  his  new  city.  David's  next  care  was  to  remove  the  ark  from 
Kir'jath-jearim  to  Jerusalem.  The  pious  monarch  was  also  anxious  to 
build  a  temple  for  the  national  worship,  but  the  prophet  Nathan  de- 
clared to  him  tha  '!;  was  not  fit  for  a  warrior,  whose  hands  were  so 
often  stained  with  blood,  to  erect  a  temple  to  the  God  of  peace,  but  that 
this  glorious  duty  would  devolve  upon  his  son  and  successor. 

David  now  directed  his  attention  to  the  surrounding  nations  ;  he 
overthrew  the  Philistines,  the  Moabites,  and  the  Amalekites ;  he  com- 
pelled the  Syrians  and  Edomites  to  become  tributary,  and  he  amassed 
a  prodigious  quantity  of  spoil,  a  large  portion  of  which  he  dedicated  as 
a  sacred  treasure  to  defray  the  future  expenses  of  building  the  temple. 
The  Ammonites  and  Syrians  soon  renewed  the  war,  but  they  were 
again  vanquished,  and  the  dominions  of  David  were  extended  to  the 
Euphrates.  But  while  this  war  was  continued  David  provoked  the 
anger  of  the  Lord,  by  taking  Bath'sheba,  the  wife  of  Uriah,  one  of  his 
bravest  captains,  to  liimself,  and  exposing  her  husband  to  ceruiu  death. 


46  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

The  prophet  Nathan  was  sent  to  reprove  his  guilt ;  David  humbly  con- 
fessed his  sin,  and  his  remorse  and  repentance  procured  him  pardon 
from  his  offended  God.  Domestic  calamities  interrupted  the  prosperity 
of  David's  reign ;  Amnon,  his  eldest  son,  was  slain  by  his  brother  Ab'- 
salom,  in  revenge  for  a  gross  insult  offered  to  his  sister,  and  the  young 
prince  was  no  sooner  pardoned  and  taken  into  favor,  than  he  began  to 
plot  the  dethronement  and  probable  death  of  his  indulgent  father.  The 
standard  of  revolt  was  raised ;  but  a  numerous  army  headed  by  Joab 
and  his  brothers  marched  against  Ab'salom,  and  completely  routed  his 
forces  in  the  forest  of  Ephraim.  The  unfortunate  prince,  attempting  to 
escape,  was  entangled  by  his  long  hair  in  the  branches  of  an  oak ;  in 
this  situation  he  was  slain  by  Joab,  contrary  to  the  express  commands 
of  David,  who  was  fondly  attached  to  his  rebellious  trn.  The  northerp 
tribes  again  revolted,  under  the  command  of  Sheba,  but  they  were  soon 
subdued,  and  their  leader  punished  with  death. 

David  next  turned  his  arms  against  the  Philistines,  whom  he  over- 
threw in  four  successive  battles  ;  but  the  joy  inspired  by  these  victories 
was  soon  changed  into  mourning,  for  David,  having  presumed  "  to  num 
ber  the  people,"  was  punished  by  a  pestilence,  which  swept  away 
seventy  thousand  of  his  subjects.  Shortly  afterward,  David,  being  in- 
formed that  his  son  Adonijah  was  tampering  with  some  of  the  nobles, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  throne,  gave  orders  that  Solomon,  his  son  by 
Bath'sheba,  should  be  proclaimed  king.  When  this  ceremony  was 
performed,  David  tranquilly  prepared  to  meet  the  approach  of  death. 
He  died  after  a  troubled  but  glorious  reign  of  forty  years. 

Sol'omon  commenced  his  reign  by  putting  to  death  Adonijah  and 
Joab.  In  order  to  strengthen  himself  against  foreign  enemies,  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  Pharaoh,  receiving  as  her  dowry  a 
portion  of  Canaan  which  had  been  subdued  by  that  monarch.  The 
Lord  appeared  to  Sol'omon  in  a  dream,  and  promised  to  grant  him 
whatever  he  should  ask  ;  the  young  king  chose  wisdom,  and  not  only 
was  his  request  granted,  but  riches,  honor,  and  length  of  days,  were  ad- 
ded, on  condition  of  his  persevering  in  obedience  to  the  divine  com- 
mandments. The  proofs  which  Sol'omon  gave  of  his  wisdom  and  dis- 
cernment were  so  celebrated  throughout  the  east,  that  the  most  power- 
ful monarchs  entered  into  alliance  with  him  ;  thus  tranquillity  Avas  es- 
tablished, and  leisure  afforded  for  th'"  erection  of  the  temple.  Seven 
years  and  a  halj"  were  spent  in  the  building  of  this  magnificent  edifice  ; 
the  costliness  of  its  materials  could  only  be  surpassed  by  the  beauty  of 
the  workmanship  ;  all  the  resources  of  wealth  and  ingenuity  were  ex- 
hausted on  the  wondrous  structure.  When  completed  it  was  dedicated 
to  Jehovah  in  a  solemn  festival,  and  the  Shekinah,  or  cloud  of  glory, 
which  announced  the  visible  presence  of  the  Lord,  overspread  the  en- 
tire edifice. 

Opposite  Mount  Moriah,  on  which  the  temple  stood,  Solomon  erect- 
ed a  magnificent  palace,  and  furnished  it  with  unrivalled  splendor.  He 
was  the  first  who  introduced  the  use  of  chariots  and  horses  for  warlike 
purposes  in  Israel ;  these  he  procured  from  Egypt,  through  his  alliance 
with  the  Pharaoh;  and  as  cavalry  was  then  scarcely  known  in  western 
Asia,  his  power  appeared  so  formidable  that  his  authority  was  recog 
nised  in  all  the  countries  between  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.     Sol'o 


PALESTINE. 


47 


mon  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  commerce  ;  he  opened  a  hicrative 
trade  with  Egypt,  not  only  in  chariot-horses  but  in  linen-yam  and  cot- 
ton manufactures  ;  to  facilitate  the  commercial  intercourse  between 
western  and  central  Asia,  he  erected  the  city  of  Tad'mor,  which,  in  a 
later  age,  became  so  celebrated  mider  the  name  of  Palmy'ra ;  finally, 
he  built  a  navy  at  Ez'ion-geber,  a  convenient  harbor  on  the  gulf  of 
Ak'aba,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Red  sea,  whence  his  subjects,  aided 
by  the  experienced  mariners  of  Tyre,  carried  on  a  lucrative  traffic  with 
the  rich  countries  of  southern  Asia  and  Africa.  The  learning  of  Solo- 
mon was  not  less  conspicuous  than  his  wealth. 

In  his  old  age,  SoFomon,  seduced  by  his  numerous  "  strange  wives," 
forsook  the  Lord,  by  whom  he  had  been  protected,  and  not  only  per- 
mitted, but  practised  the  rhes  of  an  impious  and  licentious  idolatry. 
Enemies  were  raised  up  against  him  on  every  side  ;  a  revolt  was  or- 
ganized in  E'dom.  Damascus  was  seized  by  an  independent  adventu- 
rer, and  Jeroboam,  to  whom  the  prophet  Ahijah  had  predicted  his  future 
greatness,  began  openly  to  aspire  at  the  government  of  the  northern 
tribes ;  but  being  unprepared  for  revolt  he  sought  shelter  in  Egypt, 
where  he  was  protected  by  King  Shishak.  It  is  generally  behoved 
that  Sol'omon,  before  his  death,  repented  of  his  guilt.  He  died,  after  a 
reign  of  forty  years  (b.  c.  975),  and  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David  his 
father. 

Section  Yl.—  The  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes.— The  History  of  the  Kingdom 

of  Israel. 

Rehoboam  succeeded  his  father  Sol'omon,  and  immediately  after  his 
accession  went  to  Shechem,  in  order  to  receive  the  homage  of  the 
northern  tribes.  They  h&d  suffered  severely,  in  the  close  of  the  late 
reign,  from  the  pressure  of  taxation,  and  from  the  loss  of  trade  conse- 
quent on  the  revolt  of  the  Syrians  ;  they  now  deputed  Jeroboam,  and 
their  elders,  to  demand  a  redress  of  grievances,  promising  implicit  obe- 
dience if  their  burdens  were  removed.  His  father's  aged  and  experi- 
enced ministers  recommended  compliance  with  the  popular  demands, 
but  the  king  instigated  by  his  rash  associates,  returned  a  haughty  and 
threatening  reply.  Such  an  answer  was  the  signal  for  rebellion.  The 
northern  tribes  immediately  chose  Jeroboam  for  their  king  ;  and  thence- 
forward Israel  and  Judah  became  separate  kingdoms.  Rehoboam 
levied  a  large  army  to  subdue  the  insurgents,  but  the  Lord  sent  the 
prophf  t  Shemaiah  to  forbid  his  march,  and  he  was  forced  thenceforth 
to  rest  contented  with  reigning  over  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin. 

Jeroboam,  "  the  son  of  Nebat,"  immediately  after  his  elevation,  pre- 
pared to  break  off  all  connexion  with  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  as  the 
unity  of  the  national  worship,  and  the  custom  of  going  up  three  times  a 
a  year  to  Jerusalem,  greatly  impeded  his  plan,  he  resolved  to  establish 
idolatrous  sanctuaries  in  his  own  kingdom,  and  accordingly,  in  imitation 
of  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  he  had  so  long  resided,  erected  two 
golden  calves,  one  at  Beth'el,  and  the  other  at  Dan.  The  choice  of 
these  places  was  not  the  result  of  caprice  ;  Beth'el  had  long  been  ven- 
erated as  the  place  in  which  Jacob,  the  father  of  the  Hebrew  race,  had 
his  miraculous  vision,  and  Dan  had  been  the  seat  of  idolatrous  worship 
since  the  days  of  the  Judges.     The  Levites  refused  to  countenance 


48  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

this  impious  innovation,  and  sought  shelter  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
Jeroboam  suppUed  their  place  by  selecting  priests  for  his  new  deities 
from  the  lowest  of  the  people.  A  desultory  warfare  was  maintained 
between  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  through  the  whole  of  Jero- 
boam's reign,  which  lasted  twenty-two  years  ;  but  in  the  nineteenth 
year  Jeroboam  received  so  severe  a  defeat  that  he  never  again  dis- 
played his  former  spirit  of  enterprise. 

Nadab  succeeded  his  father  Jeroboam  in  his  kingdom,  and  his  idola- 
trous courses.  His  brief  reign  of  two  years  produced  no  event  of  im- 
portance ;  he  was  assassinated'  by  Baasha,  one  of  his  generals.  Baasha 
put  all  that  remained  of  Jeroboam's  family  to  death. 

Baasha  adopted  the  wicked  policy  of  Jeroboam,  and  though  the 
prophets  of  the  Lord  forewarned  him  that  similar  vengeance  would 
overtake  his  family,  obstinately  persevered  in  his  guilt.  But  many 
pf  the  Israelites  were  secretly  attached  to  the  pure  worship  of  their 
fathers,  and  secretly  went  up  annually  to  ofler'  their  devotions  at 
Jerusalem.  Baasha  built  a  fortress  at  Ramah  to  intercept  the  pilgrims, 
but  this  was  destroyed  by  A'sa,  king  of  Judah,  who  also  bribed  the 
Syrians  to  invade  the  territories  of  his  rival.  Baasha's  reign  of  twenty- 
three  years  was  feeble  and  inglorious,  and  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  Is- 
raelites seemed  extinct. 

E'lah,  a  weak  and  luxurious  prince,  succeeded  Baasha ;  at  the  end 
of  two  years  he  was  assassinated,  while  feasting  in  the  house  of  his 
steward,  by  Zim'ri,  the  captain  of  his  chariots.  When  the  Israelite 
army,  which  was  besieging  Gib'bethon,  heard  of  the  murder,  they  ele- 
vated Om'ri,  their  leader,  to  the  vacant  throne,  and  marched  against  the 
usurping  assassin.  Zim'ri,  hopeless  of  escape,  fled  into  the  palace, 
and  setting  it  on  fire,  perished  in  the  flames.  Om'ri  had  still  to  con- 
tend against  another  rival,  named  Tib'ni,  whom  he  easily  subdued. 
The  most  important  act  of  his  reign  was  building  the  city  of  Samaria, 
so  named  from  Shemer,  the  proprietor  of  the  hill  on  wliich  it  was 
erected.  Samaria  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and 
long  after  the  fall  of  that  kingdom  continued  to  be  a  place  of  great  im- 
portance. "  Om'ri  wrought  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  did 
worse  than  all  that  went  before  him  ;"  but  even  his  iniquities  were  sur- 
passed by  those  of  his  son  and  successor. 

A'hab  commenced  his  reign  by  marrying  Jez'ebel,  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Si'don,  and  at  her  instigation  introduced  the  worship  of  the  Si- 
donian  deities,  which  consisted  in  the  offering  of  human  sacrifices,  and 
other  ceremonies  too  abominable  for  description.  Those  who  adhered 
o  the  religion  of  Jehovah  were  bitterly  persecuted,  the  schools  of  the 
prophets  were  closed,  and  many  of  the  teachers  murdered.  Elijah, 
undaunted  by  danger,  denounced  Divine  vengeance  against  such  iniquity, 
-ut  he  was  forced  to  fly,  and  seek  concealment  in  the  fastnesses  on  the 
frontier.  God  punished  the  iniquity  of  the  land  by  fearful  drought  and 
famine.  A'hab,  in  his  distress,  sent  for  Elijah,  who  challenged  the 
priests  of  Baal  to  appear  in  sight  of  all  the  people  on  Mount  Carmel, 
and  there  del  ermine  which  deity,  Baal  or  Jehovah,  was  the  most  pow- 
erful protector  of  the  nation.  The  challenge  was  accepted  ;  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Lord  was  proved  by  the  most  signal  miracles,  and  the 
multitude,  enraged  at  those  by  whom  they  had  been  duped,  pri  to  death 


PALESTINE. 


49 


ft!l  the  prophets  of  Baal,  by  comiiKviul  of  Eh'jah,  at  the  brook  Kishon 
The  ciir.se  was  then  removed  from  the  hmd,  plenteous  rain  descended, 
and  the  famine  ceased.  Jez'ebel  Avas  greatly  enraged  at  the  defeat  of 
her  national  deity,  and  Elijah  once  more  fled  into  the  wilderness.  Af- 
ter having  witnessed  some  wondrous  manifestations  of  Divine  power, 
he  was  conmianded  to  announce  to  Haz'ael  that  he  should  be  king  of 
Syria,  to  Jehu  that  he  should  be  king  of  Israel,  and  to  Elisha  that  he 
should  be  his  successor  in  the  office  of  prophet. 

When  A'hab  had  reigned  eighteen  years,  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria, 
at  the  head  of  thirty-two  tributary  princes,  and  a  numerous  army,  laid 
siege  to  vSamaria.  Encouraged  by  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  A'hab  at- 
tacked this  immense  host  with  a  mere  handful  of  men,  and  gained  a 
sig-nal  victory.  Benhadad  attempted  to  retrieve  his  losses  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  but  was  routed  with  terrible  slaughter.  A  r^ew  crime  pro- 
voked God's  wrath  against  A'hab  and  his  family  ;  he  was  anxious  to 
obtain  a  vineyard  belonging  to  Naboth,  a  native  of  Jez'reel,  in  order  to 
enlarge  his  garden.  The  wicked  Jez'ebel  contrived  that  the  innocent 
man  should  be  stoned  to  death,  and  iV'hab  took  possession  of  the  vine- 
yard. In  the  moment  of  his  triumph  the  prophet  Elijah  appeared,  and 
denounced  fearful  vengeance  for  this  crime,  but  A'hab,  by  timely  re- 
pentance, obtained  a  gracious  respite,  so  that  the  evils  impending  over 
his  house  did  not  happen  until  after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  a 
balde  against  the  Syrians,  in  which  the  allied  forces  of  A'hab  and  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  king  of  Judah  were  defeated. 

Ahaziah  succeeded  A'hab,  and  like  him,  was  devoted  to  idolatry.  A 
fall  from  a  window,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  so  severely  injured 
him,  that  fears  were  entertained  for  his  life,  and  he  sent  his  servants  to 
consult  the  oracle  of  Baalzebub,  in  Ek'ron.  On  their  road  the  messen- 
gers were  met  by  Elijah,  who  predicted  the  approaching  death  of  the 
king,  as  a  punishment  for  having  consulted  false  gods.  Ahaziah  sent 
two  detachments,  of  fiffy  men  each,  to  arrest  the  prophet,  but  both  com- 
panies were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven.  A  third  captain  of  fifty 
interceded  with  the  prophet;  Elijah  accompanied  him  to  the  king's 
presence,  where  he  repeated  his  denunciation,  which  was  soon  accom 
plishec'  by  Ahaziah's  death. 

Jehorani,  another  son  of  A'hab  succeeded,  but  was  less  prone  to  idol- 
atry than  his  father  and  brother,  for  he  prohibited  the  worship  of  the 
Sidonian  Baal,  though  he  did  not  remove  the  golden  calves  which  Jero- 
boam had  set  up  at  Dan  and  Bethel.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Elijah 
was  taken  up  into  heaven,  without  enduring  the  pangs  of  death,  and  his 
successor,  Elisha,  began  to  prove  his  mission  by  a  series  of  stupendous 
miracles.  Benhadad,  the  Syrian  monarch  of  Damascus,  defeated  in 
several  attacks  on  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  attributed  his  ill  success  to 
the  prophet,  and  sent  a  body  of  his  soldiers  to  make  him  prisoner  ;  hu 
the  Syrian  troops  Avere  smitten  with  blindness,  and  in  this  helpless  con- 
dition easily  taken  captive.  The  Syrian  monarch  was  not  daunted;  he 
assembled  a  large  army,  advanced  against  Samaria,  blockaded  the  city, 
and  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  the  greatest  extremities  of  famhie.  Je- 
horam  menaced  vengeance  against  Elisha,  but  the  prophet  assured  him, 
ihat  by  the  next  day  Samaria  would  have  abundance  of  provisions. 
On  tt.at  night,  under  the  influence  of  supernatural  terror,  they  fled- 


50  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

The  rich  plunder  of  the  vacant  tents  soon  restored  plenty  tt  the  houses 
of  the  besieoed ;  Benhadad,  after  his  return,  was  murdt  red  by  his  ser- 
vant Haz'aol,  who  usurped  the  throne,  and  became  a  most  formidable 
enemy  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Jehorara  entered  into  alliance  with 
Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  in  order  to  recover  Ramoth-Gil'ead,  but  their 
joint  forces  were  routed  by  the  Syi-ians  ;  the  king  of  Israel  was  severely 
wounded,  and  retired  to  Jez'reel  to  be  healed.  In  the  meantime,  Eh- 
sha,  by  command  of  the  Lord,  sent  a  prophet  to  anoint  Jehu  king  of 
Israel ;  and  the  new  sovereign  who  was  a  great  favorite  v/iih  the  army, 
advanced  toward  Jez'reel.  Hearing  of  his  approach,  Jehoram  went 
out  to  meet  him,  accompanied  by  Ahaziah,  king  r^f  Judah.  Their  con- 
ference was  brief;  Jehu  shot  Jehoram  through  the  heart,  with  an  arrow, 
and  ordered  his  body  to  be  cast  into  the  vineyard  of  Naboth,  as  the 
Lord  had  ibretold.  Ahaziah  was  overtaken  and  slain ;  but  his  servants 
conveyed  his  body  to  Jerusalem,  and  buried  it  in  the  sepulchre  of  his 
fathers. 

Jehu  advanced  to  Jez'reel  without  opposition ;  as  he  came  near  the 
palace,  Jez'ebel  looked  out  from  tlie  window,  and  reproached  him  with 
his  treason;  the  servants,  by  Jehu's  direction,  threw  her  headlong 
down  on  the  pavement,  and  her  mangled  body  was  trampled  under  the 
feet  of  the  horses.  In  the  evening  orders  were  given  for  her  inter- 
ment, but  it  was  found  that  the  greater  part  of  the  body  had  been 
devoured  by  dogs  and  beasts  of  prey,  as  the  prophet  Elijah  had  fore- 
told. A'hab's  family  was  very  numerous  ;  seventy  of  his  sons  were  in 
Samaria,  but  they  were  all  beheaded  by  the  citizens,  who  dreaded  the 
power  of  Jehu  ;  and  forty-two  of  the  family  of  the  king  of  Judah  shared 
the  same  fate.  Jehu  completely  extirpated  the  worship  of  Baal,  but 
he  continued  the  idolatry  which  Jeroboam  had  established,  and  there- 
fore the  duration  of  his  dynasty  was  limited  to  his  desqendants  of  the 
fourth  generation. 

The  Syrians,  under  Haz'ael,  grievously  afflicted  the  Israelites  during 
the  reigns  of  Jehu  and  his  son  Jehoahaz  ;  but  these  visitations  failed 
to  turn  the  princes  or  the  people  from  their  impious  idolatries.  In  the 
reign  of  the  latter  Elisha  died,  but  his  miraculous  powers  did  not  cease 
with  his  life,  for  a  dead  body  was  restored  to  life  by  touching  his  bones 
in  the  tomb.  The  Israelites  gained  three  victories  over  the  Syrians, 
and  thus  recovered  the  ancient  frontiers  of  their  kingdom ;  they  also 
conquered  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  plundered  Jerusalem,  and  brought 
it3  rich  spoils  to  Samaria. 

The  kingdom  of  Israel  continued  to  flourish  during  the  long  reign  of 
Jeroboam  II.;  he  enlarged  his  hereditary  dominions  by  the  conquest 
of  several  cities  belonging  to  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Judah,  and  made 
his  kingdom  respected  among  surrounding  nations.  His  death  was 
followed  by  a  period  of  great  confusion ;  there  was  an  interregnum  of 
eleven  years  before  Zachariah,  his  son,  succeeded  him ;  and  he,  after 
a  brief  reign  of  six  months,  Avas  murdered  by  Shal'lum,  who  was  in 
his  turn  slain  by  Men'ahem.  In  the  reign  of  this  usurper  the  Israel- 
ites were  attacked  by  a  new  enemy  ;  the  Assyrians  under  Pul,  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  Sardanapalus  of  profane  writers,  came  against  ho 
land  and  Men'ahem  was  forced  to  purchase  his  forbearance  by  the 
payment  of  a  large  tribute.     The  conqueror,  however,  in  return,  pro- 


PALESTINE.  51 

tected  Men'aliem  against  all  other  enemies,  and  the  remainder  of  hia 
reign  was  passed  in  tranquillity.  His  son  Pekahiah  succeeded,  but  al 
the  end  of  two  years  he  was  murdered  by  Pekah,  one  of  his  generals 
who  usurped  the  throne. 

TJiough  Pekah  was  a  wicked  and  sanguinary  pjince,  yet  on  accoum 
of  the  sins  of  A'haz,  God  permitted  him  to  prevail  over  the  rival  king- 
dom of  Judah.  In  conjunction  with  Rcz'in,  king  of  Damascus,  he 
invaded  southern  Palestine,  and  brought  away  a  vast  number  of  cap- 
lives,  who  were,  however,  restored  to  their  country  upon  the  injunction 
of  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  But  notwithstanding  this  single  act  of  obe- 
dience, the  sins  of  the  Israelites  continued  to  increase,  and  the  threat- 
ened punishments  began  to  be  inflicted.  The  Assyrian  hosts  ravaged 
all  the  country  beyond  Jordan ;  the  interior  of  the  kingdom  was  con- 
vulsed by  factions,  and  in  the  midst  of  these  tumults  Pekah  was  slain 
bv  Hoshea,  a  general  of  some  reputation. 

After  nine  years  of  civil  war,  Hoshea  succeeded  in  establishing  him- 
self upon  the  throne,  but  during  the  interval,  the  Assyrians  under  Tig- 
lath-pilescr,  and  his  son  Shalmaneser,  overran  the  kingdom,  and  ren- 
dered it  tributary.  As  soon  as  his  title  was  established,  Hoshea  became 
anxious  to  regain  independence,  and  for  this  purpose  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  So  or  Sab'aco,  an  Ethiopian  prince  who  had  subdued  Egypt. 
Shalmaneser  immediately  invaded  the  country,  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria. 
After  a  brave  resistance  of  three  years,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  treated  with  the  most  ferocious  cruelty  by  the  barbarous  conquerors 
(b.  c.  719).  Shalmaneser  carried  the  Israelites  captives  into  some  dis- 
tant region  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  divided  their  country  among 
Assyrian  colonies.  In  consequence  of  the  signs  by  which  the  Lord's 
wrath  against  idolatry  was  manifested,  the  new  settlers  adopted  a  cor- 
rupted form  of  the  true  religion.  From  them,  and  a  portion  of  the  old 
inhabitants  which  remained  in  the  land,  the  Samaritans  descended,  be- 
tween whom  and  the  Jews  there  was  always  the  most  bitter  national 
enmity. 

Section  VII. — History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah. 

Kehoboam's  kingdom  was  not  so  much  injured  by  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes  as  might  be  supposed.  When  idolatry  was  established  by 
Jeroboam,  the  priests,  the  Levites,  and  a  multitude  of  persons  who  still 
adhered  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  emigrated  to  Judah,  where 
they  were  received  as  brethren.  Rehoboam  introduced  the  worst 
abominations  of  Ammonite  idolatry,  and  the  great  body  of  the  people 
participated  in  his  guilt.  His  guilt  was  punished  by  an  invasion  of  the 
Egyptians :  "  in  the  fifth  year  of  King  Rehoboam,  Shishak  king  of 
Egypt  came  up  against  Jerusalem,  because  they  had  transgressed 
against  the  Lord,  with  twelve  hundred  chariots  and  threescore  thou- 
sand horsemen :  and  the  people  were  without  number  that  came  with 
liim  out  of  Egypt ;  the  Lub'ims,  the  Sukk'iim,  and  the  Ethiopians. 
And  he  took  the  fenced  cities  which  pertained  to  Judah,  and  came  to 
Jerusalem."  The  account  here  given  of  Shishak's  power,  and  of  his 
ruling  over  the  Libyans,  the  Ethiopians,  and  the  Sukk'iim,  or  Trog'lo- 
dytae,  is  confirmed  by  the  Egyptian  monuments,  for  the  sculptures 
ascribed  to  him  on  the  walls  of  Carnak,  exliibit  him  offering  to  ih« 


53  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

deity  u.  great  number  of  captives  belonging  to  different  nations  Reho 
boam  purchased  the  forbearance  of  Shishaic  by  the  payment  of  a  large 
ransom.  "  Shishak  took  away  the  treasures  of  the  house  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  treasures  of  the  king's  house  ;  he  took  all :  he  carried  away 
also  the  shields  of  gold  which  Solomon  made.  Instead  of  which,  King 
Rehoboam  made  shields  of  brass,  and  committed  them  to  the  hands 
of  the  chief  of  the  guard  that  kept  the  entrance  of  the  king's  house." 
Abijah,  the  son  of  Rehoboam,  soon  after  his  succession,  had  to  de 
fend  his  kingdom  against  the  usurper  of  Israel,  whose  army  greatly 
outnumbered  that  of  Judah.  The  Lord  gave  the  victory  to  Judah 
This  victory  greatly  depressed  the  Israelites,  and  exalted  the  glory  of 
Judah ;  but  before  the  king  could  improve  his  advantages,  he  was  pre- 
maturely cut  off  by  disease. 

A'sa,  who  succeeded  his  father,  was  a  wise  and  pious  prince.  "  He 
took  away  the  altars  of  the  strange  gods  .  .  .  and  commanded  Judat. 
to  seek  the  Lord  God  of  their  fathers,  and  to  do  the  law  and  the  com- 
mandment." He  expelled  the  Egyptians  from  their  ret  ""nt  conquests, 
and  secured  his  frontiers  by  a  chain  of  fortresses  judiciously  placed  and 
strongly  garrisoned.  His  piety  was  rewarded  by  Divine  protection  in  the 
hour  of  danger.  A  vast  horde  of  invaders  approached  the  southern 
boimdary  of  Judea  :  in  the  original,  these  enemies  are  called  Ciishim,  a 
v/ord  usually  rendered  Ethiopians.  A'sa  prayed  to  the  God  of  his  fa- 
thers for  aid  against  this  enormous  host;  his  prayers  were  heard 
"  The  Lord  smote  the  Ethiopians  before  A'sa  and  before  Judah,  and  the 
Ethiopians  fled." 

A'sa  afforded  every  encouragement  to  the  emigrants  from  Israel,  who 
fled  from  the  idolatry  and  wickedness  which  prevailed  in  that  country. 
Baasha,  who  then  reigned  in  Israel,  erected  a  fortress  at  Ramah  to 
check  the  emigration,  and  made  such  formidable  preparations  for 
war,  that  A'sa,  with  culpable  distrust  of  the  Divine  favor,  paid  a 
large  sum  to  the  king  of  Syria  for  support  and  assistance.  When  re- 
proved for  his  crime  by  the  prophet  Han'ani,  he  thrust  his  honest  ad- 
viser into  prison,  and  thenceforward  became  tyrannical  and  oppressive. 
BeinfT  subsequently  attacked  by  a  disease  in  the  feet,  "  he  sought  not  to 
the  Lord  but  to  the  physicians,'^  and  died  in  the  prime  of  manhood. 

Jehosh'aphat  succeeded  his  father  A'sa,  and  in  the  commencement 
of  liis  reio-n  used  the  most  vigorous  exertions  to  root  idolatry  from  the 
land.  Under  this  wise  administration  the  kingdom  of  Judah  became  so 
prosperous,  that  not  only  the  Philistines,  but  the  distant  Arabians  paid 
tribute.  Unfortunately,  he  contracted  affinity  with  the  wicked  A'hab, 
and  gave  his  son  in  marriage  to  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  that  monarch, 
a  princess  whose  character  was  scarcely  less  depraved  than  that  of 
her  mother  Jez'ebel.  In  consequence  of  this  unfortunate  alliance,  Je- 
hosh'apha'  was  present  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ramoth-Gil'ead, 
where  A'hab  was  slain  ;  he  was  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  and  would 
have  been  killed,  had  he  not  "  called  upon  the  Lord,"  who  rescued  him 
from  his  imminent  peril.  Shortly  after  his  return  from  the  Assyrian 
campaign,  Jehosh'aphat  was  attacked  by  the  united  forces  of  the  Moab- 
ites,  the  Amorites,  and  the  Edomites  of  Mount  Seir.  Jehosh'aphat 
threw  himself  on  the  protection  of  Jehovah,  and  the  Lord  sent  a  spirit 
%i  disunion  among  the  invaders,  which  led  them  to  destroy  each  other 


PALESTINE.  53 

by  mutual  slaughter.     The  people  of  Judah  came  upon  their  enemies 
thus  broken,  and  obtained  a  great  quantity  of  valuable  spoil. 

Anxious  to  restore  the  commerce  which  Sol'omon  had  established 
on  the  Red  sea,  Jehosh'aphat  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  wicked 
Ahaziah,  the  son  of  A'hab  ;  and  a  na\y  was  prepared  at  their  joint  ex- 
pense, in  E'zion-geber.  But  the  unhallowed  alliance  was  displeasing 
to  the  Lord,  and  the  ships  were  destroyed  in  a  storm.  At  his  death  Je- 
hosh'aphat left  the  kingdom  of  Judah  in  a  more  prosperous  condition 
than  it  had  been  since  the  days  of  Sol'omon. 

Jehoram  commenced  his  reign  by  the  slaughter  of  his  brethren,  after 
which  he  legally  established  the  abominations  of  the  Sidonian  idolatry 
in  Judah.  His  iniquity  was  punished  by  the  revolt  of  the  Edomiles, 
who  maintained  their  independence,  and  by  invasions  of  the  Philistines 
and  Arabians,  who  carried  away  his  wives  and  most  of  his  children 
into  captivity.  He  was  finally  smitten  by  a  loathsome  and  incurable 
disease,  of  which  he  died  in  great  tortures. 

Ahaziah,  the  youngest  of  Jehoram's  children,  and  the  only  one  spared 
by  the  Arabians,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  During  his  brief  reign  of 
one  year,  he  followed  the  evil  courses  of  his  father  and  mother.  He 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  and  joined  with 
him  in  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover  Ramoth-Gil'ead  from  Hazael, 
king  of  Syria.  Having  gone  to  meet  Jehoram,  while  he  lay  sick  of 
his  wounds  at  Jez'reel,  just  at  the  time  of  Jehu's  insurrection,  he  was 
involved  in  the  fate  of  his  ally,  and  slain  by  command  of  Jehu. 

Athaliah,  the  queen-mother,  having  heard  of  Ahaziah's  death,  usurp- 
ed the  royal  authority,  and  to  secure  her  power,  murdered  all  the  royal 
family,  save  the  infant  Jehoash,  who  was  saved  by  his  paternal  aunt, 
wife  to  the  chief  priest  Jehoiada,  and  for  six  years  secretly  educated  in 
-he  temple.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  Jehoiada  gathered  together  the 
priests,  the  Levites,  and  the  chief  princes  of  Judah,  to  whom  he  re- 
vealed the  existence  of  the  young  heir  to  the  throne.  "  And  Jehoiada 
and  his  sons  anointed  him,  and  said,  God  save  the  king."  The  accla- 
mations of  those  who  witnessed  the  ceremony  alarmed  the  wicked 
queen ;  she  rushed  into  the  assembly,  rending  her  garments,  and  ex- 
claiming, "  Treason  !  treason !"  but  she  was  forsaken  by  all  her  parti- 
sans, and,  at  Jeh^lada's  command,  was  put  to  death  beyond  the  precincts 
of  the  temple. 

Under  the  regency  of  Jehoiada,  the  worship  of  the  true  God  was  re- 
stored, the  administration  of  justice  purified,  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
land  re-established.  He  died  at  the  great  age  of  on^  hundred  and  thir- 
ty years.  After  the  death  of  the  regent,  Jehoash  yielded  to  the  evil 
counsels  of  the  profligate  young  nobles  of  Judah,  and  restored  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Sidonian  Baal,  with  all  its  licentious  abominations.  Several 
prophets  were  sent  to  denounce  his  transgressions,  but  he  persecuted 
them  for  their  fidelity,  and  even  put  to  death  Zechariah,  the  son  of  his 
benefactor,  Jehoiada,  "  in  the  court  of  the  house  of  the  Lord."  His 
crime  was  soon  punished  :  "  the  army  of  the  Syrians  came  with  a  small 
company  of  men,  and  the  Lord  delivered  a  very  great  host  into  their 
hands."  They  had  scarcely  departed,  when  he  was  seized  with  "  grea 
iiseases,"  and  in  the  midst  of  his  agony  was  murdered  by  his  own  ser 
vants.     His  subjects  were  so  displeased  by  the  calamities  of  his  reigii^ 


54  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

that  they  would  not  allow  his  remains  to  be  buried  in  the  tombs  of  th« 
kings,  an  insult  which  had  been  previously  offered  to  the  body  of  Je- 
horam.  Amaziah's  first  care,  after  his  elevation  to  the  throne,  f/as  to 
punish  the  murderers  of  his  father.  He  then  marched  against  the 
Edomites  with  an  auxiliary  force  which  he  had  hired  from  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  On  the  recommendation  of  a  prophet,  he  dismissed  his  al- 
lies, by  which  they  were  so  grievously  offended,  that  they  committed 
the  most  savage  excesses  on  their  way  home.  In  the  meantime,  Am- 
aziah  routed  the  Edonutes  with  great  slaughter,  and  subdued  all  the 
country  round  Mount  Seir.  With  strange  perversity,  he  adopted  the 
idolatry  of  the  nations  he  had  just  subdued.  The  prophets  warned  him 
of  the  fearful  consequences  of  his  apostacy ;  but  their  remonstrances 
were  vain,  and  he  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  Je- 
hoash,  king  of  Israel,  was  the  chosen  instrument  of  Amaziah's  punish- 
ment ;  he  defeated  the  men  of  Judah  in  a  decisive  engagement,  took 
the  king  prisoner,  captured  Jerusalem,  destroyed  a  large  extent  of  his 
fortifications,  and  returned  laden  with  spoil  to  Samaria.  A  conspiracy 
was  subsequently  organized  against  Amaziah ;  he  fled  from  Jerusalem 
to  Lachish,  but  was  overtaken  by  some  of  the  emissaries  of  the  rebels, 
and  put  to  death.  — 

Uzziah,  the  son  of  the  murdered  king,  though  only  sixteen  years  of 
age  when  he  ascended  the  throne,  displayed,  in  the  commencement  of 
his  reign,  the  wisdom  of  mature  age.  He  restored  the  worship  of  the 
true  God,  and  reformed  the  abuses  which  had  crept  into  every  depart- 
ment of  the  administration.  God  prospered  his  undertaknigs  ;  he  sub- 
dued the  Philistines,  the  Arabians,  and  the  most  warlike  of  the  nomad 
tribes  that  border  on  the  desert.  To  secure  his  conquests  he  erected  a 
chain  of  fortresses,  and  to  render  them  profitable,  he  excavated  a  great 
number  of  tanks  or  cisterns,  by  which  means  large  tracts  of  land,  hith- 
erto unprofitable,  were  brought  into  cultivation.  "  But  when  he  waa 
strong,  his  heart  was  lifted  up  to  his  destruction ;"  he  attempted  to 
usurp  the  priestly  office  by  "  burning  incense  upon  the  altar  of  incense,'' 
and  persevered  in  spite  of  every  warning.  But,  at  the  very  moment 
that  he  was  about  to  consummate  this  act  of  impiety,  he  was  struck  by 
a  leprous  disease,  which  at  once  severed  him  from  all  society  wilh  his 
fellow-men.  Compelled  to  reside  in  a  separate  house,  and  unable  to 
transact  public  affairs,  he  transferred  the  reins  of  government  to  hia 
son.  On  his  death,  his  disease  was  assigned  as  a  reason  for  refusing 
his  body  admission  to  the  royal  sepulchre,  and  it  was  interred  in  the 
adjoining  field. 

Jotham  had  been  accustomed  to  affairs  of  state  during  the  lifetime 
of  his  father,  whose  piety  he  emulated,  without  imitating  his  fauUs 
His  fidelity  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  rewarded  by  the  conques* 
cf  the  Ammonites,  who  paid  him  a  large  tribute  ;  and  thus  "  Jotham  be- 
came mighty  because  he  established  his  ways  before  the  Lord  hi& 
God."  No  particulars  are  recorded  of  his  death,  which  took  pkce  m 
the  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign. 

The  most  wicked  king  which  had  yet  occupied  the  throne  of  Judah, 
was  A'haz,  the  successor  of  the  pious  Jotham.  He  not  only  deserted 
ilie  worship  of  the  true  God,  but  adopted  those  abominable  supersii* 
tions  which  many  of  the  heathen  viewed  with  horror ;  "  he  burnt  in 


PALESTINE.  55 

cense  in  the  valley  of  ihc  sons  of  Hin'noni,  and  burnt  his  children  in 
the  fire,  after  the  abominations  of  tlie  heathen  whom  the  Lord  had  cast 
out  before  the  children  of  Israel."  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  the 
kings  of  Syria  and  Israel,  who  carried  multitudes  into  captivity ;  but 
the  Israelites  generously  releaseJ  their  prisoners,  as  has  been  already 
related.  The  Edomiles  and  Philistines  next  attacked  the  kingdoir  of 
Judah :  A'haz,  unable  to  meet  them  in  the  field,  sought  to  purchase  aid 
from  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria ;  but  that  monarch  received  the 
tribute,  and  withheld  any  effectual  assistance.  In  his  distress,  A'haz 
sunk  deeper  into  idolatry  ;  "  he  sacrificed  unto  the  gods  of  Damascus 
which  smote  him,  and  he  said,  because  the  gods  of  the  kings  of  Syria 
help  them,  therefore  will  I  sacrifice  to  them  that  they  may  help  me 
But  they  were  the  ruin  of  him  and  of  all  Israel."  A^haz  went  further ; 
he  shut  up  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  broke  the  sacred  vessels  in  pieces, 
and  erected  idolatrous  altars  "in  every  corner  of  Jerusalem."  The 
country  was  thus  brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin ;  but  its  fall  was  arrested 
by  the  death  of  the  impious  monarch.  His  subjects  showed  their  re- 
sentment for  the  evils  of  his  administration  by  refusing  his  body  admis- 
sion to  the  sepulchres  of  their  kings. 

Hezekiah  commenced  his  reign  by  a  thorough  reformation  of  the 
abuses  which  had  so  nearly  brought  destruction  on  Judah.  The  chief 
adviser  of  the  pious  king  was  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  had  proclaimed 
the  future  advent  of  the  Messiah,  and  denounced  the  national  sins  in  the 
Jwo  preceding  reigns.  All  the  vestiges  of  idolatry  were  destroyed,  the 
images  were  broken,  the  groves  cut  down,  and  the  polluted  altars  over- 
thrown ;  even  the  brazen  serpent,  which  had  been  preserved  since  the 
days  of  Moses,  was  demolished,  because  it  had  become  the  object  of 
idolatrous  veneration.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  soon  acquired  such 
strength,  that  Hezekiah  ventured  to  shake  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  to 
which  his  father  had  submitted.  Shalmaneser,  who  had  just  conquered 
Israel,  would  have  immediately  marched  against  Judah,  had  not  the 
wealthy  cities  of  Phcenicia  offered  a  more  tempting  prize  to  his  avarice 
and  ambition.  His  son,  Sennacherib,  inherited  liis  revenge  against 
Judah  :  he  advanced  to  Lachish  with  a  powerful  army,  but  Hezekiah, 
with  culpable  timidity,  attempted  to  purchase  his  forbearance  by  a 
larg-  bribe.  This  rich  tribute  only  served  to  stimulate  the  cupidity  of 
Sennacherib  ;  he  sent  a  large  army  directly  against  Jerusalem,  but 
Hezekiah,  encouraged  by  the  gracious  promises  of  Divine  protection, 
communicated  to  him  by  the  prophet  Isafah,  made  the  most  judicious 
preparations  for  a  vigorous  defence.  Rab'shakeh,  the  Assyrian  gen- 
eral, summoned  the  city  to  surrender,  in  a  haughty  and  insolent  tone, 
speaking  in  the  Hebrew  language,  that  his  threats  might  be  understood 
by  the  people.  Hezekiah,  who  was  suffering  under  severe  illness, 
sought  protection  from  the  Lord,  and  his  wavering  faith  was  confirmed 
by  the  shadow  of  the  sun  retrograding  on  the  dial  at  the  command  of 
Isaiah,  In  a  few  days,  the  Assyrians  were  summoned  away  to  defend 
their  dominions  against  Tirhakah,  the  king  of  Meroe,  or  Ethiopia,  who 
had  conquered  Egypt,  and  was  endeavoring  to  extend  his  empire  to  the 
Euphrates.  Sennacherib  defeated  the  Ethiopians,  and,  flushed  with 
victory,  renewed  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  threatening  death  and  destruc- 
tion to  the  entire  kingdom.  But  his  vaunts  were  suddenly  checked; 
"  the  angel  of  the  Lord  went  forth  and  smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyria 


^6  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ans  a  hundred  fourscore  and  five  tliousand  ;  and  when  they  arose  early 
in  the  mornnig,  behold  they  were  all  dead  corpses."  Sennacherib  fled 
to  Nin'eveh  with  the  miserable  remnant  of  his  forces,  and  was  soon  af- 
ter murdered  by  his  own  sons,  "  as  he  was  worshipping  in  the  house 
of  Nis'roch,  his  god." 

The  intelligence  of  this  wondrous  deliverance  was  spread  over  the 
east ;  Ber'odach-Bal'adan,  king  of  Babylon,  sent  ambassadors  to  con- 
gratulate Hezekiah,  and  also  to  inquire  into  the  phenomenon  of  the 
retrogression  of  the  solar  shadow.  Hezekiah,  with  foolish  pride,  dis- 
played all  his  treasures  to  the  ambassadors.  Isaiah  was  sent  to  re- 
prove his  ostentation,  and  to  inform  him  that  these  Babylonians  wouM 
destroy  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The  repentant  monarch  heard  the  re- 
buke with  pious  resignation,  and  submissively  yielded  himself  to  the 
dispensations  of  Providence.  His  death  was  sincerely  lamented  by  his 
subjects  ;  "  they  buried  liim  in  the  chiefest  of  the  sepulchres  of  the  sons 
of  David ;  and  all  Judah  and  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  did  him  hon- 
or at  his  death." 

Manas^seh  v/as  scarcely  less  remarkable  for  iniquity  than  his  father 
for  piety ;  He  even  exceeded  A'haz  in  impiety,  for  he  revelled  in  the 
grossest  abominations  of  eastern  idolatry.  His  subjects  too  readily  im- 
itated his  example  ;  they  joined  him  in  persecuting  the  prophets  of  the 
Lord,  who  remonstrated  against  their  transgressions  ;  there  is  a  con- 
stant tradition  among  the  Jews,  that  Isaiah  was  sawn  in  sunder  during 
the  reign  of  this  merciless  tyrant.  But  an  avenger  was  at  hand  ;  the 
Assyrians  invaded  Judah  with  overwhelming  forces,  stormed  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  the  impious  Manas'seh  in  chains  to  Babylon  (b.  c. 
676).  The  imfortimate  monarch  was  treated  with  savage  cruelty  by 
his  captors  ;  he  was  so  loaded  with  iron  bands,  that  he  coidd  not  move 
his  head.  But  "  when  he  was  in  aflliciion,  he  besought  the  Lord  his 
God,  and  humbled  himself  greatly  before  the  God  of  his  fathers  ;  and 
prayed  unto  him,  and  He  was  sntreated  of  him,  and  brought  him  again 
to  Jerusalem  into  his  kingdom."  Manas'seh,  thus  restored,  applied 
himself  diligently  to  extirpate  idolatry  ;  and  the  remainder  of  his  reign 
was  spent  in  peace  and  comparative  tranquillity. 

Notwithstanding  the  fearful  punishment  inflicted  on  Manas'seh,  and 
his  example  of  sincere  penitence,  A'mon,  his  son  and  successor,  re- 
vived all  the  infamous  rites  of  idolatry.  In  a  brief  reign  of  two  years, 
tlie  kingdom  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  destruction  ;  corruption  spread 
through  every  department  of  the  administration,  and  crimes  at  which 
nature  revolts  were  not  Only  permitted,  but  encouraged.  At  length, 
some  of  the  officers  of  the  household  slew  the  licentious  monarch  ;  they 
were  however  put  to  death  for  their  treason ;  and  Josiah,  the  son  of 
A'mon,  at  the  early  age  of  eight  years,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 

From  the  moment  of  his  accession,  Josiah  eagerly  applied  himself 
to  restoring  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  and  reforming  the  abuses  of 
the  kingdom.  Josiah  travelled  through  his  kingdom,  and  through  some 
of  the  adjoining  cities  of  Israel  which  lay  almost  desolate,  removing 
from  them  eveiy  vestige  of  idolatry  ;  and  having  thus  purified  his  king- 
dozn,  he  celebrated  the  feast  of  the  Passover  with  the  utmost  solemnity 
and  splendor.  The  greater  part  of  Josiah's  reign  was  spent  in  tran- 
quillity ;  but  Avhen  he  had  been  rather  more  than  thirty  years  upon  the 
Jirone,  the  o  'ertlirow  of  the  Assyrian  empire  by  the  Modes  and  Bab- 


PALESTINE.  57 

ylonians,  induced    Pliaraoli-Neclio,   the  powerful  king  of  Egypt,  to  at- 
tempt the  extension  of  his  dominions  to  tlie  Euphrates.     Josiah  rashly 
attacked  the  Egyptian  forces  in  the  valley  of  Megid'do,  and  was  mor 
tally  wounded.     His  servants  brought  him  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died. 
"  And  all  Judah  and  Jerusalem  mourned  for  Josiah." 

The  people  of  Jerusalem  raised  Jehoahaz.the  youngest  son  of  .Josiah, 
to  the  throne  ;  but  he  was  set  aside  by  the  victorious  Pharaoh-Necho, 
who  gave  the  kingdom  to  the  elder  prince  Eliakim,  and  changed  his 
name  to  Jehoiakim.  A  complete  revolution  in  the  affairs  of  Asia  was 
effected  by  the  victorious  career  of  Nebuchadnez'zar,  king  of  Babylon. 
He  overthrew  the  Egyptians  at  Car'chemish,  "  and  took  from  the  river 
of  Egypt  unto  the  river  Euphrates,  all  that  pertained  to  the  king  of 
Egypt."  Jehoiakim  submitted  to  the  conqueror,  and  agreed  to  pay 
tribute  for  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  but  afterward  planning  a  revolt,  Neb- 
uchadnez'zar  returned  to  Jerusalem,  plundered  the  city,  sent  the 
treasures  and  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  as  trophies  to  Babylon,  put 
Jehoiakim  to  death  as  a  rebel,  and  left  his  unburied  corpse  a  prey  to 
the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  the  beasts  of  the  fields.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jehoiachin,  who  after  a  brief  but  profligate  reign  of  three 
months,  was  deposed  by  the  imperious  conqueror,  and  sent  in  chains 
to  Babylon,  with  a  multitude  of  other  captives. 

Zedekiah,  the  uncle  of  the  deposed  monarch,  was  chosen  his  succes 
sor  ;  but  he  did  not  take  Avarning  by  the  fate  of  his  predecessors,  and 
abstain  from  intrigues  with  Egypt.  Instigated  by  Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, 
and  encouraged  by  false  prophets,  he  renounced  Ms  allegiance  to  the 
king  of  Babylon.  When  the  forces  of  Nebuchadnez'zar  approached. 
Pharaoh-Hoph'ra  made  but  a  faint  effort  to  assist  his  unfortunate  ally ; 
on  the  first  repulse,  he  retreated  within  the  frontiers  of  his  own  king- 
dom, leaving  Zedekiah  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  Assyrians'  rage.  Neb- 
ichadnez'zar,  after  a  short  siege,  compelled  Jerusalem  to  surrender 
unconditionally.  Zedekiah  and  his  family  fled,  but  were  overtaken  by 
the  pursuers  in  the  plains  of  Jericho  ;  the  degraded  king  was  dragged 
in  chains  before  the  cruel  conqueror ;  his  wives  and  children  were 
slain  in  his  presence,  his  eyes  were  put  out,  and  he  was  sent  in  chains 
to  terminate  his  miserable  existence  as  a  captive  in  Bab'ylon.  Jeru- 
salem and  its  temple  were  razed  to  the  ground ;  the  wretched  inhab- 
itants were  transported  to  Bab'ylon ;  and  for  seventy  years  the  holy 
city  had  no  existence  save  in  the  memory  of  heart-broken  exiles  (b.  c. 
586).  The  day  on  which  Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  that  on  which  its 
destruction  was  completed,  are  observed  even  in  our  age,  as  days  of 
fasting  and  humiliation,  by  the  scattered  remnant  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
The  former  event  occurred  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  fourth  month ;  the 
latter  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  fifth  month. 

Oriental  conquerors  subjected  their  captives  to  the  most  cruel  treat- 
ment. They  were  bound  in  the  most  painful  attitudes  and  driven  like 
cattle  to  the  slave-markets,  where  families  were  divided,  by  their  mem- 
bers being  sold  to  different  masters.  It  is  probable  that  the  Babyloni- 
ans were  not  less  severe  task-masters  than  the  Egyptians  had  been , 
for  we  find  in  the  later  prophets  that  the  memory  of  what  the  Jews  had 
suffered  ever  rankled  in  the  mind  of  the  nation  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
after  their  deliverance  they  never  again  lapsed  into  idolatry 


59  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  VL 
THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  MEDES  AND  PERSIANM 

Section  I. — Geograjjhical  Outline. 

The  boundaries  of  Iran,  which  Europeans  call  Persia,  have  under 
gone  many  changes  :  in  its  most  prosperous  periods,  its  lirnits  wrre  the 
Persian  gidf  and  Indian  ocean  on  the  south,  the  rivers  Indus  and  Ox'ua 
on  the  east,  the  Caspian  sea  and  Caucasian  mountains  on  the  north, 
and  the  Euphrates  on  the  west.  The  most  striking  features  of  rnls  ex- 
tensive country  are  numerous  chains  of  mountains,  and  extensive  tracts 
of  desert,  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys  and  rich  pasture-lands.  The 
southern  coast  along  the  Persian  gulf  is  a  sandy  plain,  desolated  by  pes- 
tilential winds  from  the  desert  of  Kerman,  and  scarcely  possessing  any 
indentation  or  navigable  river  which  could  serve  as  a  harbor.  Thence 
to  the  Caspian  sea  and  the  Ox'us  there  is  a  succession  of  mount- 
ains and  valleys  of  different  elevation  and  extent.  Few  of  the  mount- 
ains are  of  extraordinary  height,  though  some  of  the  ranges  are  capped 
with  perpetual  snow.  None  of  the  valleys  are  wide,  but  some  of  them 
extend  to  the  length  of  one  hundred  miles. 

Persia  Proper,  the  modern  province  of  Phars,  contained  the  sacred 
metropolis  of  the  empire,  known  to  us  only  by  its  Greek  name,  Per- 
sep'olis.  This  celebrated  city  was  destroyed  by  Alexander ;  but  its 
ruins  testify  that  it  must  have  rivalled  the  most  splendid  cities  of  anti- 
quity. 

The  province  of  Susiana  (Khuzistan)  separated  Persia  Proper  from 
Babylonia ;  between  the  two  provinces  was  a  range  of  mountains,  in- 
habited by  warlike  pastoral  tribes,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were 
the  Ux'ii,  who  compelled  the  Persian  kings  to  pay  them  trioute  when 
they  went  from  Susa  to  Persep'olis.  Susiana  was  a  fertile  province, 
watered  by  several  small  streams,  that  supplied  a  vast  number  of  canals 
and  water-courses.  Susa,  the  capital  of  this  district,  once  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  Persian  monarchs,  is  now  a  vast  desert,  where  the  ruins 
of  a  city  can  with  difficulty  be  traced. 

Media  was  divided  into  two  provinces ;  Atropatene  or  Media  Minor 
(Azerbijan),  and  Media  Major  (Irak  Ajemi).  Ecbatana  (Ham'adan)  was 
the  capital  of  Media,  and  rivalled  Susa  and  Persep'olis  in  magnificence, 
while  it  exceeded  them  in  extent  and  the  strength  of  its  fortiticatioas. 
The  eastern  districts  of  Media,  named  A'ria,  formed  an  extensive  steppe, 
which  merged  in  the  desert  of  Carmania  (Kerman).  The  capital  waa 
named  A'ria,  and  occupied  the  site  of  the  modem  Herat. 


MEDES  AND  PERSIANS.  59 

North  of  Media  lay  Par'thia  and  Hyrcania  (Taberistan  and  Mazen 
deran) ;  mountainous  regions,  with  some  fertile  valleys.  Northeast  of 
these  were  the  sandy  deserts  now  called  Khirwan,  tenanted  by  nomade 
tribes,  who  then  and  now  practised  alternately  the  arts  of  merchants, 
herdsmen,  and  robbers.  East  of  A'ria  was  Bactriana,  divided  by  the 
Ox'us  from  Sog'diana :  its  capital  city  was  Bac'tra,  which  is  usually 
identified  with  the  modern  city  of  Balkh.  The  metropolis  of  Sogdiana 
was  Maracan'da,  now  called  Samarcand,  one  of  the  most  ancient  com- 
mercial cities  in  the  world. 

East  of  the  province  of  Phars  were  Carmania  (Kerman)  and  Gedrosia 
(Mekran) ;  flat  and  sandy,  but  interspersed  with  some  very  fertile  tracts. 

The  hills  in  the  interior  of  Persia  are  but  thinly  clad  with  vegetation, 
and  none  but  those  of  Mazenderan  and  Georgia  possess  forests ;  there 
are  buu  few  rivers  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be  navigable  :  the  most  re- 
markable are  the  Ulai  or  Eulse'us  (Karun),  the  Ar'ras  or  Arax'es,  and 
the  Etyman'der  (Her'mund). 

The  valleys  of  the  centre  of  Persia  abound  in  the  rarest  and  most 
valuable  vegetable  productions.  The  orchards  produce  all  the  fruits  of 
the  temperate  zone,  and  the  most  beautiful  flowers  of  our  gardens  grow 
wild  in  the  fields.  The  horses  and  dogs  are  of  uncommon  size,  strength, 
and  beauty ;  and  no  country  possesses  a  more  robust,  active,  and  well- 
shaped  race  of  men.  In  short,  Persia  possesses  every  natural  advantage 
for  becoming  a  powerful  and  prosperous  empire  ;  but  from  the  remotest 
ages  it  has  been  subjected  to  a  blighting  despotism,  by  which  its  re- 
Bources  have  been  not  merely  neglected,  but  wasted  and  destroyed. 

Skction   II. —  The   Sources   and    Extent  of  our  Knowledge  respecting  the 

Ancient  Persians. 

The  sources  of  Persian  history  are  either  native  or  foreign  ;  the  lat- 
ter including  the  accounts  both  of  the  Greek  historians  and  the  Jewish 
prophets. 

The  first  native  authority  is  the  Zend-a-vesta,  a  collection  of  the 
sacre'l  books  of  the  ancient  Persians.  In  this  work  are  contained  the* 
early  traditions  of  the  nation,  the  religious  system  and  moral  code 
ascribed  to  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroas'ter,  the  great  Persian  legislator,  and 
the  liturgy  still  used  by  the  "  worshippers  of  fire."  Connected  with 
this  is  the  Dabistan,  written  by  a  Mohammedan  traveller  about  two  cen- 
turies ago,  in  which  the  author  treats  very  fully  of  the  ancient  religion 
of  Persia,  professedly  deriving  his  information  from  original  sources. 
To  these  must  be  added  some  minor  Parsi  works,  collected  by  oriental 
ists  in  India. 

Next  in  importance  to  these  ranks  the  Shah  Nameh,  or  Book  of  Kings, 
an  immense  epic  poem,  written  by  Ferdousf,  the  greatest  poet  of  Persia, 
about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  This  historical  poem  was  com- 
piled from  vagie  traditions,  and  from  the  few  fragments  of  ancient  Per- 
sian literature  that  survived  the  political  destruction  of  national  records 
by  the  Greeks  and  Parthians,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  first  Moham- 
medan conquerors ;  and,  consequently,  facts  are  so  disguised  by  a  mul- 
titude of  fictions,  that  it  is  always  difficult,  and  frequently  impossible,  to 
arrive  at  the  truth  of  1  is  representations.     Mirldiond  and  his  son  Khon- 


60  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

demfr  both  wrote  histories  of  Persia,  about  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century  ;  they  have,  however,  in  general  followed  the  narrative  of  Fer- 
dousi ;  but  in  some  places  Mirldiond  undoubtedly  has  used  the  same 
authorities  as  the  compiler  of  the  Dabistan. 

Herod' otus,  Xen'ophon,  and  the  fragments  of  Ctesias,  are  the  princi- 
pal Greek  authorities  for  the  history  of  ancient  Persia .  of  these  the 
first  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  and  his  account  of  the  Persian  wars 
with  Greece  is  entitled  to  our  confidence.  It  must  also  be  added,  that 
many  parts  of  his  narrative  are  singularly  confirmed  by  the  legends  pre- 
served in  the  works  of  Mirkhond  and  Ferdousi. 

In  the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Est'her  is  altogether  a  Persian  history,  and 
much  important  information  is  given  incidentally  in  the  Books  of  Dan'iel, 
Ez'ra,  and  Nehemiah. 

Finally,  much  light  has  been  thrown  on  ancient  Persian  history  by 
the  writings  of  modern  oriental  scholars ;  especially  the  philological 
researches  of  Bupp,  Burnouf,  and  Schlegel,  which  have  shown  how 
closely  allied  the  ruling  people  of  Hindustan  was  with  the  ruling  nation 
of  Iran,  by  pointing  out  the  close  resemblance  between  the  original  lan- 
guages of  both,  the  Sanscrit  and  the  Zend. 

Section  III. — Social  and  Political  Condition  oj  Ancient  Persia. 

Central  Asia,  from  the  most  remote  ages,  has  been  exposed  to  the 
invasions  of  nomad  hordes  from  the  north  and  east,  most  of  which,  ac- 
cording to  their  native  legends,  descended  from  the  mountainous  tracts 
extending  from  the  great  Altaian  chain  to  the  borders  of  India.  Recent 
investigations  have  rendered  it  probable  that  this  was  also  the  native 
country  of  the  Brahmins  and  Hindus,  at  least  of  the  higher  castes ;  but 
it  is  impossible  to  discover  at  what  period  migrations  commenced  to  the 
south  and  west.  The  colonists  who  came  into  Media  called  themselves 
A'rii,  manifestly  the  same  word  as  the  Sanscrit  Ar'ya,  which  signifies 
pure  men,  in  opposition  to  the  Mlechas,  or  barbarians.  They  were  a 
mixed  priestly  and  warrior  caste,  who  treated  their  subjects  as  beings 
of  an  inferior  nature.  Their  early  success  was  chiefly  owing  to  their 
skill  in  horsemanship  ;  if  not  the  first  nation  of  the  East  that  employed 
cavalry,  they  were  the  first  to  make  that  military  body  the  main  strength 
of  their  army.  A  cognate  race,  the  Persians,  having  nearly  the  same 
institutions  proceeded  further  to  the  southwest,  and  formed  a  nation 
of  herdsmen  and  shepherds.  A  monarch  named  Jemshid,  the  Achae'- 
menes  of  the  Greeks,  first  instructed  his  subjects  in  agriculture,  and 
they  gratefully  made  royalty  the  inheritance  of  his  family.  The  Medes, 
having  long  held  dominion  as  he  ruling  caste,  were  overthrown  in  an 
insurrection  of  the  agricultural  and  shepherd  tribes :  this  political  revo- 
lution was  effected  by  Cy'rus;  and  it  was  followed  necessarily  by  a 
religious  change,  consequent  on  the  altered  position  of  the  priestly 
caste. 

Under  the  Medes,  or  rather  the  Magi,  as  their  priests  were  called,  a 
species  of  the  Sabian  superstition  seems  to  have  prevailed  :  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  received  divine  worship,  while  the  more  ancient  be- 
lief in  one  supreme  God  though  obscured,  was  not  wholly  lost.  When 
the  Persians  triumphed,  the  priestly  caste  losx  much  of  its  influence 


MEDES  AND  PERSIANS.  6. 

and  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  naturally  hostile  to  the  new  dynastv : 
hence  we  find  the  Persian  monarchs  bitter  persecutors  of  the  pricyti 
wherever  they  established  their  sway,  destroying  the  Chaldeans  in 
Babylon,  and  the  sacerdotal  caste  in  Egypt.  The  nature  of  the  reli- 
gious changes  made  by  Cy'rus  can  not  now  be  determined  ;  but  the 
revolution  was  completed  by  Zoroaster,  whose  system  is  the  most  per* 
feet  devised  by  unassisted  human  reason.  God,  he  taught,  existed  from 
all  eternity,  and  was  like  infinity  of  time  and  space.  There  were,  he 
averred,  two  principles  in  the  universe — good  and  evil:  the  one  was 
named  Hormuzd,  the  other  Ahriman.  Each  of  these  had  the  power  of 
creation,  but  that  power  was  exercised  with  opposite  designs  ;  and  it 
was  from  their  co-action  that  an  admixture  of  good  and  evil  was  found 
in  every  created  thing.  But  the  source  of  good  alone,  the  great  Hor- 
muzd, was  eternal,  and  must  therefore  ultimately  prevail.* 

With  these  speculative  tenets  was  combined  a  system  of  castes, 
which  are  described  by  Ferdousi,  who  attributes  their  introduction  to 
Jemshid. 

The  conservation  of  the  ordinances  that  regulated  public  morals  was 
i.itrusted  to  the  Magi,  who  were,  as  we  have  said,  originally  a  caste  or 
tribe  of  the  Medes.  Zoroas'ter  reformed  the  institutions  of  this  body, 
and  appears  to  have  opened  the  priestly  dignity  to  persons  of  every 
caste,  though  few  entered  on  the  functions  of  public  worship  who  were 
not  of  the  Magian  descent.  Thus  the  sacerdotal  rank  in  Persia  par- 
took of  the  nature  both  of  a  caste  and  an  order.  It  was  high  in  power: 
the  court  was  principally  composed  of  sages  and  soothsayers.  The 
priests  also  were  judges  in  civil  cases,  because  religion  was  the  basis 
of  their  legislation  ;  but  they  were  strictly  bound  by  the  ancient  code. 
No  circumstances  were  deemed  sufficiently  strong  to  warrant  a  depar- 
ture from  ancient  usages  ;  and  hence  "  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians" were  proverbial  for  their  strictness  of  execution. 

The  king  was  as  much  bound  by  the  national  code  as  his  meanest 
subject ;  but  in  every  other  respect  his  power  was  without  control ; 
and  the  satraps,  or  provincial  governors  under  him,  were  equally 
despotic  in  their  respective  provinces.  The  court  scarcely  differed  in 
any  material  point  from  the  oriental  courts  of  the  present  day.  It  was 
a  heav^-  tax  on  the  national  resources  to  support  the  barbarous  splendor 
with  whioh  the  kings  and  satraps  deemed  it  necessary  to  surround  their 
dignity ;  and  the  exactions  wrung  from  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  al- 
ways made  the  Persian  peasantry  the  most  miserable  even  in  Asia. 
The  army  was  another  source  of  wretchedness  to  the  country :  a  vast 
amount  of  standing  forces  was  always  maintained,  and  hordes  of  the 
wandering  tribes  on  the  borders  of  Persia  kept  in  pay  :  beside  this,  in 
case  of  any  emergency,  every  man  capable  of  bearing  arms  was  en- 
rolled in  his  own  district,  and  forced  to  become  a  soldier  on  the  first 
summons.  This  constitution  enabled  the  Persians  to  make  rapid  con- 
quests, but  it  prevented  their  empire  from  becoming  permanent :  the 
Holdiers  fought  for  pay  or  plunder,  and  were  held  together  by  no  com- 
mon principle,  save  attachment  to  their  leader  ;  hence  the  fall  or  flight 
of  the  commander-in-chief  instantly  decided  the  fate  of  a  Persian  army 

*  Sir  John  Malcolm's  Persia,  vol.  i.,  p.  194.  The  Jews  have  a  tradition  that 
Zoroaster  was  instructed  in  the  true  religion  by  one  of  the  prophets. 


62  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

however  great  its  numbers  ;  and  when  the  army  was  dtifeated,  th« 
kingdom  vvas  subdued.  The  great  oriental  monarchies  were  liable  to 
'  vicissitudes  scarcely  known  in  European  states.  There  was  no  patri- 
otic spirit  in  the  people,  no  love  of  independence  in  the  nation ;  if 
the  invader  prevailed  in  the  battle-field,  he  had  no  further  enemies  to 
dread ;  the  mass  of  the  population  cared  little  for  a  change  of  rule, 
which  left  unaltered  the  miseries  of  their  situation. 

Skction  IV. — History  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  under  the  Kaianian 

Dynasty. 

FROM    B.C.    710    TO    B.C.    522. 

Media  and  Persia  v/ere  provinces  of  the  great  Assyrian  empire  ,■ 
I.  id  their  native  legends  preserve  the  memory  of  the  cruelty  with 
V  hieh  they  were  treated  by  the  monarchs  of  Nineveh.  When  that 
e.npire  was  broken  to  pieces  after  the  death  of  Sardanapalus,  Media 
fell  into  a  state  of  anarchy,  from  which  it  was  delivered  by  Deioces 
(b.  c.  71U),  the  Kai-K6bad  of  oriental  writers  :  he  built  the  city  of 
Ecbatana,  and  greatly  strengthened  his  new  kingdom  Ijy  inducing  his 
subjects  10  form  permanent  settlements  ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his  useful 
career,  he  was  summoned  to  chock  the  rising  power  of  the  Babylonians 
and  fell  in  battle.  The  Median  power  was  restored  by  Phraor'tes, 
who  succeeded  his  father ;  but  it  attained  its  highest  glory  under  Cy- 
ax'ares,  ihe  third  monarch  of  this  dynasty. 

In  ihe  early  part  of  his  reign,  Cyax'ares  had'  to  encounter  many  for- 
midable dihiculties.  While  he  was  engaged  besieging  Nineveh,  the 
Scythian  hordes  from  the  north  entered  Media,  and  overran  the  greater 
part  of  central  and  western  Asia.  Their  ravages  were  continued  for 
twenty-eight  years,  and  they  had  compelled  the  Medes  to  give  them 
free  admntance  to  their  houses,  when  they  were  simultaneously  de- 
stroyed by  a  conspiracy  of  their  hosts,  which  Cyax'ares  had  organized. 
A  party  that  had  escaped  the  general  massacre  entered  into  the  service 
of  the  Median  monarch ;  but  finding  reason  to  dread  the  fate  of  their 
countrymen,  they  transferred  their  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Lydia,  and 
thus  caused  a  war  between  the  two  monarch-r,  The  most  memorable 
event  o*"  this  war,  which  lasted  five  years,  \\  as  the  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun,  tiat  took  place  in  the  midst  of  a  battle,  and  so  alarmed  the  con- 
tending parti. B,  that  both  the  Medes  and  Lydians  fled  in  confusion 
from  the  field.  A  peace  was  soon  after  concluded  between  the  two 
crowns,  and  Cyax'ares  renewed  his  war  against  the  Assyrians.  Aided 
by  the  king  of  Babylon,  he  besieged  and  took  Nineveh,  and  totally  de- 
stroyeu  that  ancient  city  (b.  c.  601).  The  allies  next  attacked  the  dis- 
tricts that  the  Egyptians  possessed  in  Syria,  defeated  Pharaoh-Necho 
<'«  at  Car'chemish,  and  subdued  the  principal  part  of  western  Asia.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  supremacy  of  the  Medes  over  the  Persian 
principalities  was  first  established  during  the  reign  of  Cyax'ares,  who 
is  generally  identified  with  the  Kai  Kaoos  of  Mirkhond  and  Ferdousi. 

Asty'ages,  called  in  the  book  of  Daniel  Ahasuerus,*  that  is,  "  the 
aiighty  hero"  (Achash  Zwerosh),  an  epithet  given   .o  several  oriental 

•  Daniel  ix.  1. 


MEDES  AND  PERSIANS.  ^  63 

monarchs.  was  the  next  king.  To  reconcile  t^ie  Persians  to  his  au- 
thority, he  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Camby'ses,  of  the  family 
of  the  Achaemen'id<B,  and  the  royal  tribe  of  the  Pasar'gadfc.  The  issue 
of  this  union  was  Agrad'ates,  subsequently  named  Cy'rus,  Khoresh,  or 
Khosrau,  different  forms  of  a  Persian  word  which  signifies  the  sun. 

The  main  facts  of  the  romantic  legend  that  Herodotus  has  preserved 
respecting  the  early  years  of  Cyrus,  are  confirmed  by  the  oriental  his- 
torians ,  and  when  stripped  of  some  embellishments,  can  scarcely  be 
deemed  incredible.  The  following  are  the  facts  in  which  the  Greek 
and  Persian  historians  confirm  each  other's  testimony ;  the  Persian 
names  of  the  principal  actors  are  enclosed  in  parentheses.  Camby'ses 
(Siyawesh)  is  said  to  have  sought  refuge  at  the  court  of  Asty'ages 
(Afrasiab),  king  of  a  country  north  of  Persia  (Turan),  to  avoid  the  ef- 
fects of  his  father's  jealousy.  He  obtained  the  hand  of  his  host's 
daughter  Mandane  (Ferangiz)  in  marriage.  Envious  courtiers  preju- 
diced the  Median  king  against  his  son-in-law ;  he  resolved  to  destroy 
him,  and  the  child  of  which  his  own  daughter  was  pregnant.  The 
Persian  prince,  according  to  the  oriental  historians,  was  murdered ; 
but  the  princess  and  her  unborn  child  were  saved  by  Har'pagus  (Piran 
Wisiih),  the  tyrant's  prime  minister.  The  posthumous  child  of  Cam  - 
by'seswas  the  celebrated  Cyrus  :  he  was  brought  up  in  obscurity  until 
he  approached  the  age  of  manhood,  when  he  learned  the  secret  of  his 
birth.  With  all  the  courage  of  enthusiastic  youth,  he  went  among  his 
countrymen,  who  revered  the  memory  of  his  father,  and  were  weary 
of  the  tyranny  of  Asty'ages ;  they  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  the 
young  prince,  entering  Media,  dethroned  Asty'ages,  and  threw  him  into 
prison.  Instead,  however,  of  seizing  the  crown  for  himself,  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  rule  of  Cyax'ares  H.  (Kai  Kaoos),  his  maternal  uncle 
whom  the  Persians  describe  as  his  paternal  grandfather. 

Cyax'ares,  immediately  after  his  accession  to  the  dignity  of  Dara- 
wesh,  or  king  of  Media  (b.  c.  560),  sent  his  nephew  to  invade  the 
Babylonian  empire,  which  had  now  fallen  from  its  high  estate.  Cy'rus 
invested  the  city  of  Bab'ylon,  and,  after  a  long  siege,  took  it,  in  the 
manner  that  has  been  already  related.  Cyax'ares,  whose  title  of  Dara- 
wesh,  or  Darius,  is  frequently  mistaken  for  a  proper  name,  removed 
the  seat  of  his  government  to  the  newly-acquired  city,  where  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  merits  of  the  prophet  Dan^iel,  he  took  him  into  his 
service,  and  appointed  mm  his  chief  vizier.  Some  envious  courtiers  at- 
tempted to  ruin  him  by  means  of  his  well-known  piety,  and  procured 
an  edict  from  the  Darawesh,  forbidding  any  one,  for  thirty  days,  to  offer 
up  prayers  to  any  one  but  the  king,  under  penalty  of  being  exjjosed  to 
lions.  Dan'iel  disobeyed  the  impious  command,  and  was  thrown  into 
the  lions'  den  ;  but  God  closed  the  mouths  of  the  ferocious  animals,  and 
he  was  talcen  out  uninjured.  He  was  immediately  restored  to  hia 
office,  which  he  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life ;  and  it  deserves  to  be 
added,  than  in  consequence  of  his  fidelity  to  the  Median  and  Persian 
kings,  he  is  described  as  a  renegade  in  some  ancient  Jewish  traditions. 

Cy'rus  succeeded  Cyax'ares  in  the  kingdom ;  and  thus  the  suprem- 
acy was  transferred  from  the  Medes  to  the  Persians  (b.  c.  534).  Bui 
long  before  he  reigned  alone,  he  had  been  associated  with  his  uncle  in 
the  government,  and  had  the  sole   command  of  the  army  that  subdued 


64  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Ly^dia,  Assyr'ia,  Babylonia,  and  western  Asia,  to  the  confines  of 
Eg}'pt.  Innnediately  after  his  accession,  he  issued  an  edict  permitting 
the  Jews  to  return  to  their  native  land,  and  rebuild  the  walls  and  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  as  the  prophet  Isaiah  had  predicted  a  hundred  years 
before  his  birth.  For  seven  years  he  ruled  his  empire  in  peace  and 
prosperity,  directing  his  attention  to  establishing  a  stable  government 
in  his  extensive  dominions,  and  endeavoring,  as  we  have  good  reason 
to  believe,  to  restrict  the  extravagant  privileges  claimed  by  the  Magi, 
or  priestly  caste. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  manner  of  his  death,  about  which  there 
is  some  doubts,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  buried  at  Pasargadaj,  v/here 
the  remains  of  his  tomb  may  still  be  see.  In  the  age  of  Strabo,  it  bore 
the  following  inscription,  "  0  man,  I  am  Cyprus,  who  founded  the  Per- 
sian empire :  envy  me  not  then  the  little  earth  which  covers  my  re- 
mains." 

Camby'ses  (Lohorasp)  succeeded  to  the  throne  (b.  c.  529),  and  im- 
mediately prepared  to  invade  Egypt.  He  soon  made  himself  mastei 
of  Pelusium,  and,  being  aided  by  the  local  information  of  Phanes,  a 
Greek  deserter,  he  overthrew  Psammenitus,  the  last  Egyptian  monarch, 
and  subdued  the  entire  country.  His  fierce  hostility  to  the  sacerdotal 
caste,  which  he  inherited  from  his  father,  made  him  a  persecutor  of 
the  Egyptian  priests,  who,  in  revenge,  have  portrayed  him  as  the  worst 
of  tyrants.  After  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  he  resolved  to  annex  Ethio- 
pia to  his  dominions,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  plunder  the  Ammonium, 
or  oreat  temple  of  Jupiter  Am'mon,  built  on  an  oasis  in  the  midst  of 
the  desert.  In  the  midst  of  the  desert  the  Persians  were  deserted  by 
their  p<3rfidious  guides,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  were  finally  over- 
whelmed by  the  moving  sands  that  winds  sometimes  raise  in  the  desert. 

Camby'ses  intended  to  have  carried  his  arms  into  western  Africa ; 
but  his  designs  were  frustrated  by  the  refusal  of  the  Phoenician  mar- 
iners to  serve  against  their  Carthagenian  brethren.  To  secure  his 
throne,  he,  with  the  cruel  precaution  so  common  in  Asia,  put  his  brother 
Smer'dis  to  death ;  but  was  soon  alarmed  by  hearing  that  a  usurper, 
under  his  brother's  name,  had  seized  the  Persian  crown.  On  his  re- 
turn home,  Camby'ses  died  of  an  accidental  wound  from  his  own  sword, 
having  first  solemnly  assured  his  officers  of  the  falsehood  practised  by 
the  pretended  Smer'dis.  As  Camby'ses  died  without  heirs,  the  Kaian- 
ian  dynasty,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  included  both  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, became  extinct  (b.  c.  522). 

Section  V. — History  of  the  Persians  under  the  Hystasjnd  Dynasty. 

FROM  B.  c.  522  TO  B.  c.  330. 

The  real  history  of  the  false  Smer''dis  appears  to  be  slightly  dis- 
guised in  the  narratives  of  the  Grecian  writers :  he  was  manifestly 
raised  to  the  throne  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  priestly  caste,  who  were  de- 
sirous of  restoring  their  own  supremacy,  and  that  of  their  allies,  the 
Medes.  The  Persian  nobles  combined  to  prevent  such  a  calamity,  de- 
stroyed the  usurper,  and  chose  for  their  sovereign,  or  darawesh,  Hys- 
tas'pes  (Gushtasp),  who  appears  to  have  been  a  member  of  the  family 
of  the  Acha-men'ibsB.     Darius  Hystas'pes   appears  to  have  been  the 


THE  PERSIANS.  t»5 

first  who  used  the  ohl  title  of  royahy  (Darawesh  or  Darius,)  as  a  proper 
name.  When  fixed  upon  the  throne,  he  persecuted  the  magi  with 
great  severity,  and  patronised  the  religious  system  ascribed  to  Zcrdusht, 
or  Zoroas'ter.  The  Persian  legends  describe  this  philosopher  as  hia 
contemporary ;  and  this  is  rendered  exceedingly  probable  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  variou.s  accounts  given  of  this  great  reformer.* 

To  secure  his  title,  Darius,  for  henceforth  he  will  be  best  known  by 
this  name,  united  himself  in  marriage  with  the  two  surviving  daughters 
of  Cy'rus,  and  then  prepared  to  punish  the  Babylonians,  Avho,  in  con- 
sequence probably  of  the  ancient  connexion  between  the  Chaldeans 
and  the  sacerdotal  caste  of  the  Medes,  had  not  only  revolted  but  mur- 
dered all  whom  they  regarded  as  useless  mouths,  to  prove  their  de- 
termined obstinacy.  Baby'lon  sustained  a  siege  of  twenty  months ; 
and  might  have  baffled  its  besiegers,  had  not  a  Persian  noble  mutilated 
himself,  and  gone  over  to  the  citizens  as  a  deserter  who  had  escaped 
from  the  inhuman  cruelty  of  his  sovereign.  His  wounds  gave  credit 
to  his  words  :  he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an  important  post, 
which  he  betrayed  to  Darius,  and  thus  enabled  that  monarch  to  become 
master  of  the  rebellious  city.  The  attention  of  the  conqueror  was  next 
directed  to  quelling  an  insurrection  of  the  Greek  commercial  cities  of 
western  Asia ;  he  added  Thrace  to  his  dominions,  and  undertook  an 
invasion  of  Scythia.  The  Danube  was  passed  on  a  bridge  of  boats ; 
and  the  Persians  advanced  without  opposition  through  a  difficult  and 
barren  country,  until  they  had  advanced  beyond  the  reach  of  their  sup- 
plies. Darius  was  forced  to  retreat,  and  his  safety  was  purchased  by 
the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  his  followers. 

Having  severely  punished  a  subsequent  revolt  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor,  Darius  resolved  to  extend  his  vengeance  to  their  Grecian  allies, 
and  collected  a  large  naval  and  military  force,  which  he  intrusted  to 
the  command  of  his  son-in-law  Mardonius.  Mardonius  crossed  the 
Hellespont  into  Thrace,  whence  he  passed  into  Macedonia,  at  that 
time  a  Persian  province.  All  the  neighboring  countries  submitted  ^ 
but  lus  fleet  was  shattered  in  a  storm,  while  doubling  Mount  A'thos, 
and  his  army  soon  afterward  was  attacked  unexpectedly  by  the  bar- 
barous Thracian  tribes,  who  slew  a  great  many  of  the  soldiers,  and 
severely  wounded  Mardonius  himself.  A  second  expedition  was  sent 
to  Greece,  under  the  command  of  Datis  and  Artapher'nes,  who  forced 
a  passage  into  the  northern  parts  of  that  country,  stormed  Eret'ria,  and 
were  menacing  Athens,  when  they  were  totally  routed  by  the  Atheni- 
ans undei  Miltiades,  at  the  memorable  battle  of  Mar'athon  (b.  c.  490). 
To  avenge  these  losses,  Darius  resolved  to  invade  Greece  in  person  ; 
but  an  insurrection  of  the  Egyptians,  and  disputes  among  his  children 
respecting  the  succession,  and  not  long  after  his  own  death,  frustrated 
his  designs. 

Xer'xes,  immediately  after  his  accession  (b.  c.  485),  marched  against 
the  Egyptian  rebels,  whom  he  completely  subdued.  Elated  by  this 
success,  he  prepared  to  invade  Greece,  and  collected  the  largest  army 
that  had  ever  beer  assembled.  His  naval  preparations  were  on  an 
equally  extensive  scale.  But  on  the  very  threshold  of  Greece,  at  the 
mountain-pass  of  Thermopylaj,  his  countless  hordes  were  checked  and 

•  Sec  Professor  Shea's  admirable  translation  of  Mirkhond,  p.  274. 

5 


fi6  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

repulsed  by  a  handful  of  men  under  the  command  of  Leonidas,  king  of 
Sparta.  Treachery  enabled  him  to  turn  the  flank  of  the  gallant  wax 
riors,  and  he  entered  Greece  ;  but  the  account  of  his  campaigns  be- 
longs properly  to  Grecian  history.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  after 
having  suffered  unparalleled  losses  by  sea  and  land,  he  returned  to 
Persia  covered  vv^ith  disgrace.  The  forces  that  he  left  behind  him  un- 
der Mardonius  were  annihilated  at  the  battle  of  Plateae  ;  and  the  Greeks, 
following  up  their  success,  destroyed  the  power  of  the  Persians  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  made  them  trea;ible  for  the  security  of  their  provin- 
ces in  Asia  Minor. 

Xer'xes  is  unknown  by  name  to  the  oriental  historians  ;  they  name 
him  Esfendiar,  arid  ascribe  to  him  the  most  eminent  qualities  of  a  gen- 
eral and  soldier.  It  is  proliable  that  the  memory  of  Xer'xes's  exploits  in 
youth  were  alone  preserved  in  eastern  Persia.  It  is  generally  thought 
that  Xer'xes  was  the  Ahasuerus  (Achash  Zwerosh,  that  is,  "  brave 
hero")  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Est'her. 

Xer'xes  was  murdered  by  a  captain  of  his  guards,  named  Artabanus 
(B.C.  470),  and  his  eldest  son  shared  his  fate.  The  assassin  conferred 
the  crown  on  Artaxer'xes,  the  third  son  of  the  deceased  monarch,  sur- 
named  Macrocheir,  or  "  the  long-handed,"  called  by  the  native  histori- 
ans Ardeshir  Bahman,  who  is  celebrated  for  his  just  and  beneficent 
administration.  But  his  virtues  were  insufficient  to  check  the  decline 
of  the  empire,  which  began  to  exhibit  signs  of  weakness  in  every  quar- 
ter. After  countless  humiliations,  Artaxer'xes  was  forced  to  sign  a  dis- 
gracefid  peace,  by  which  he  recognised  the  independence  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  ;  consented  that  his  fleet  should  be  wholly  excluded  from  the 
iEgean  :  and  that  the  Persian  array  should  not  come  within  three  days' 
march  of  the  coast  (b.  c.  449). 

Internal  wars  and  rebellions  were  of  frequent  occurrence  ;  the  royal 
forces  were  often  defeated  and  the  empire  kept  in  a  state  of  turbulence  and 
confusion.  On  the  death  of  Artaxer^xes  (b.  c.  424),  his  only  legitimate 
son,  Xer'xes,  ascended  the  throne  ;  but  within  forty -five  days  was  mur- 
dered by  his  natural  brother,  Sogdianus  ;  and  he  again  was  deposed  by 
another  illegitimate  prince,  O'chus,  who,  on  his  accession,  took  the 
name  of  Darius  II. 

Under  the  administration  of  Darius  II.,  surnamed  Nothus,  that  is, 
"  illegitimate,"  the  empire  declined  rapidly,  chiefly  owing  to  the  in- 
creased power  and  consequent  turbulence  of  the  provincial  satraps.  On 
the  death  of  Darius,  his  son  Artaxer'xes,  surnamed  Mnemon,  from  the 
strength  of  his  memory,  ascended  the  throne  (b.  c.  405) ;  but  was  op- 
posed by  his  brother  Cy'rus,  who  had  the  support  of  the  queen-mother, 
Parysatis,  and  of  an  army  of  Greek  mercenaries,  which  he  was  enabled 
to  levy  through  his  connexion  with  Sparta.  Cy'rus,  at  first  successful, 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cunax'a  (b.  c.  401);  but  his  ten  thousand 
Greek  auxiliaries,  under  the  guidance  of  Xen'ophon,  a  renegade  Athe- 
nian, though  a  delightful  historian,  succeeded  in  forcing  a  safe  passage 
to  their  native  land.  During  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  the  weak  Ar- 
taxer'xes was  the  mere  puppet  of  his  mother,  Pary 'satis,  whose  in- 
veterate hatred  against  Queen  Statira,  and  all  whom  she  suspected  cf 
having  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of  her  favorite  son,  Cy'rus,  filled 
the   palace   with  murders,  treasons,  and  assassinations.     While   tho 


THE  PERSIANS.  67 

court  was  thus  disgraced,  Agesilaus,  king  of  Sparta,  joined  with  the 
Asiatic  Greeks,  was  making  rapid  conquests  in  western  Persia ;  and 
he  would  probably  have  dismembered  the  empire,  had  not  the  troubles 
excited  in  Greece  by  a  lavish  distribution  of  Persian  gold,  compelled 
him  to  return  home. 

The  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Artaxer'xes  was  singularly  unfortu- 
nate :  he  attempted  to  reduce  Egypt,  but  his  efforts  failed,  owing  to  a 
disagreement  between  the  Athenian  auxiliaries  and  the  Persian  com- 
manders ;  Cy'prus  regained  its  independence ;  and  the  spirit  of  revolt 
spread  through  all  western  Asia.  His  domestic  calamities  were  stili 
more  afflicting :  he  was  obliged  to  punish  his  oldest  son  Darius  with 
death,  for  conspiring  against  him ;  O'chus,  his  youngest  son,  murdered 
his  brother,  to  open  a  path  to  the  succession ;  and  Artaxer'xes,  over- 
come by  such  a  complication  of  miseries,  died  of  a  broken  heart. 

O'chus,  on  the  accession  (b.  c.  360),  took  the  name  of  Artaxer'xes 
III. ;  and,  to  secure  himself  on  the  throne,  put  to  death  no  fewer  than 
eighty  of  the  royal  family.  Artabazus,  the  satrap  of  Asia  Minor,  at- 
tempted to  take  advantage  of  the  unpopularity  which  those  crimes 
brought  on  the  monarch ;  and,  aided  by  the  Thebans  and  Athenians, 
made  a  vigorous  effort  to  seize  the  throne.  O'chus,  however,  was  as 
conspicuous  for  his  military  prowess  as  for  his  crimes ;  he  defeated 
Artabazus,  and  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Greece.  He  next  marched 
against  the  Phoenician  insurgents,  who  were  supported  by  the  Cypri- 
ots  and  Egyptians :  the  treason  of  the  general  of  the  confederates 
gave  O'chus  an  easier  victory  than  he  had  expected,  and  he  levelled 
the  city  of  Sidon  with  the  ground.  Being  joined  by  a  powerful  body 
of  Greek  auxiliaries,  he  recovered  the  island  of  Cy'prus,  and  once 
more  reduced  it  to  a  Persian  province.  But  the  king's  cruelties  were 
not  compensated  by  his  victories  ;  and  he  was  at  length  poisoned  by 
the  eunuch  Bagoas,  who  placed  Ar'ces,  the  youngest  son  of  O'chus,  on 
the  throne. 

Ar'ces,  after  a  brief  reign,  suffered  the  fate  of  his  father ;  and  the 
treacherous  Bagoas  transferred  the  crown  to  Darius  Codoman''nus,  a 
descendant  of  Darius  Nothus  (b.  c.  336).  The  eunuch  hoped  that  by 
raising  so  remote  a  branch  to  the  throne,  he  would  be  permitted  to  re- 
tain royal  power  in  his  hands ;  but  Darius  soon  asserted  his  indepen 
dence,  and  Bagoas  prepared  to  remove  him  by  poison.  The  treachery 
was  discovered ;  and  Darius  compelled  the  baffled  eunuch  to  drink  the 
medicated  portion  that  he  had  prepared.  But  the  fate  of  the  Persian 
empire  was  now  at  hand ;  Alexan'der  the  Great  of  Macedon  appeared 
in  Asia,  and  his  brave  little  army  scattered  the  myriads  of  Persia  like 
chaff  before  the  wind.  After  the  loss  of  the  two  battles  of  Is'sus  and 
Arbela,  Darius,  while  seeking  refuge  in  a  remote  part  of  his  empire, 
was  murdered  by  the  eunuch  Bes'sus  ;  and  Asia  received  a  new  mas- 


ter.* 


The  Persians  inherited  the  commercial  power  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Phoenicians  ;  but  they  opened  no  new  branch  of  trade,  and  scarce- 
ly  maintained  those  they  found  already  established.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore,  necessary  to  repeat  here  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding 
chapters  on  the  commerce  of  central  Asia. 

*  See  the  liistory  of  Macedon  in  a  following  chg^jter. 


68  ANCIENT  HlSTOitY. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
PHCENICIAN  COLONIES  IN  NORTHERN  AFRICA, 

ESPECIALLY 

CARTHAGE. 

Section  1.- — Geographical  Outline  of  Northern  Africa. 

Although  Africa  was  circumnavigated  at  a  period  of  very  remote 
antiquity,  the  interior  of  the  country  still  remained  unexplored,  and  the 
eouthem  part,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  navigation  in  the  ocean, 
was  neglected  until  the  knowledge  of  j^s  discovery  was  forgotten.  But 
the  northern  coast  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  became  the  seat  of 
flourishing  Greek  and  Phoenician  colonies.  This  extensive  district 
was  divided  by  nature  into  three  regions,  or  bands,  of  unequal  breadth, 
nearly  parallel  with  the  sea-line  :  1,  the  maritime  country,  consisting 
generally  of  very  fertile  districts,  whence  it  was  called  Inhabited  Africa, 
is  now  named  Barbary ;  2,  a  rugged  mountainous  country,  whose  loft- 
iest peaks  form  the  chain  of  Mount  Atlas,  abounding  in  wild  beasts 
and  palm-groves,  whence  it  was  called  by  the  ancients  the  Land  of 
Lions,  and  by  the  moderns  Beledulgerid,  or  the  Land  of  Dates ;  the 
Romans  usually  named  it  Gaetulia ;  3,  a  vast  sandy  desert,  which  the 
Arabs  call  Sahara. 

From  the  chain  of  Mount  Atlas  several  small  rivers  flow  into  the 
Mediterranean  by  a  short  northern  course ;  but  there  are  no  streams  of 
importance  on  tlie  south  side  of  these  mountains,  and  no  great  river  in 
the  interior  until  we  reach  the  remote  Niger,  concerning  which  the 
ancients  had  very  imperfect  information ;  indeed,  nothing  was  known 
with  certainty  of  its  true  course,  until  the  recent  discovery  of  its  mouth 
by  the  Landers. 

Proceeding  westward  along  the  shore  from  Egypt,  Africa  presented 
the  following  political  divisions  :  1,  Marmar'ica,  a  sandy  tract  tenanted 
by  nomad  tribes ;  2,  Cyrenaica,  a  fertile  territory,  occupied  by  Greek 
colonies,  extending  to  the  greater  Syr'tis  ;  its  chief  cities  were  Cyrene, 
and  Bar'ca  ;  3,  Regio  Syr'tica,  the  modern  kingdom  of  Trip'oli,  a  sandy 
tract  subject  to  tlie  Carthaginians,  but  almost  wholly  occupied  by  nomad 
hordes  ;  4,  the  domestic  territory  of  Carthage,  which  forms  the  modem 
kingdom  of  Tunis ;  5,  a  very  fruitful  country  subject  to  the  Carthagin- 
ians, the  northern  part  of  which  was  named  Byzacena,  and  the  south- 
ern Zeugitdna ;  and,  6,  Numid'ia  and  Mauritania,  occupied  during  the 
Carthaginian  age  by  nomad  hordes ;  but  having  some  Carthaginian 
colonies  along  the  coasts. 


CARTHAGE.  ®^ 

Carthage  was  built  on  a  peninsula  in  the  interior  of  a  large  bay,  now 
aalled  the  gulf  of  Tunis,  formed  by  the  projection  of  the  Hermocan  prom- 
ontory (now  Cape  Boa)  on  the  east,  and  the  promontory  of  Apollo 
(now  Cape  Zebid)  on  the  west.  The  peninsula  was  about  midway 
between  U'tica  and  Tunis,  both  of  which  could  be  seen  from  the  walls 
of  Carthage  ;  the  former  being  about  nine,  and  the  latter  only  six  miles 
distant :  it  was  joined  to  the  land  by  an  isthmus  averaging  three  miles 
m  length  ;  and  on  the  seaside  there  was  a  narrow  neck  of  land  project- 
ing westward,  which  formed  a  double  harbor,  and  served  as  a  mole 
Qr^brcakwater  for  the  protection  of  shipping.  Toward  the  sea  the  city 
was  fortified  only  by  a  single  wall;  but  the  isthmus  was  guarded  by 
»he  citadel  Byr'sa,  and  a  triple  wall  eighty  feet  high  and  about  thirty 

•vide. 

The  African  territory  of  Carthage  extended  westward  along  the 
r.oast  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  and  eastward  to  the  altars  of  the 
Philai'ni,  which  marked  the  frontier  between  the  territories  of  Cyrene 
*nd  Carthage.  Southward,  the  dominions  of  Carthage  extended  to  the 
Tritonian  lake  ;  but  many  of  the  nomad  tribes  beyond  these  limits  paii 
nominal  obedience  to  the  republic. 

The  fertile  provinces  of  Carthage,  occupied  by  people  who  tilled  the 
soil,  extended  from  Cape  Bon,  in  a  direct  line,  to  the  most  eastern  angle 
of  the  Triton  lake,  a  distance  of  nearly  two  hundred  geographical  miles. 
Its  average  breadth  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

The  foreign  possessions  of  Carthage  included  the  Balearic  islands, 
Cor'sica,  Sardinia,  and  the  smaller  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  the 
southern  part  of  Sicily  and  Spain,  some  settlements  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Fortunate  islands  in  the  Atlantic,  which  are 
probably  the  Canaries,  and  the  fertile  Madeira. 

Sectics  II. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Carthage. 

The  government  of  Carthage  was  formed  by  circumstances  ;  it  was 
originally  monarchical,  like  Tyre,  its  parent  state  ;  but  at  a  very  early 
period  it  assumed  a  republican  form,  in  which  aristocracy  was  the  pre- 
vailing element,  though  the  power  of  the  people  was  not  wholly  ex- 
cluded. There  were  two  kings,  or  chief  magistrates,  called  SufTe'tes 
(the  shophet'im,or  judges,  of  the  Hebrews),  who  appear  to  have  been 
nominated  by  the  senate,  and  then  presented  for  confirmation  to  the 
general  assembly  of  the  people.  There  was  a  double  senate  ;  a 
syned'rium,  or  house  of  assembly,  and  a  select  council,  denominated 
gerusia,  which  was  composed  of  a  hundred  of  the  principal  members 
of  the  syned'rium,  and  formed  the  high  court  of  judicature. 

Public  affairs  were  not  submitted  to  the  assembly  of  the  people,  ex 
cept  when  there  was  a  difference  of  opinion  between  the  suffetes  and 
the  senate,  when  the  decision  of  the  general  assembly  was  final. 

In  one  particular  the  Carthaginian  government  was  more  constitu- 
tional than  that  of  Rome,  or  most  of  the  Grecian  republics  ;  it  kept  dis- 
tinct the  civil  and  military  power :  the  dignity  of  chief  magistrate  was 
not  united  to  that  of  general  without  an  express  decree  for  the  purpose. 
When  a  king  was  sent  to  conduct  a  war,  his  military  powers  expired  at 
the  close  of  the  campaign,  and  previously  to  a  new  one  a  fresh  noraina- 


70  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

tiou  was  necessary.  Tliere  are  also  instances  of  a  general  being 
elected  one  of  the  sufletes,  or  kings,  while  he  was  engaged  in  conduct- 
ing war.  Other  foreign  expeditions  were  sometimes  intrusted  to  the 
kings ;  for  Hanno,  who  conducted  an  armament  to  establish  colonies 
along  the  coast  of  western  Africa,  is  expressly  called  king  of  the  Car 
thaginians. 

The  religion  of  the  Carthaginians  was  the  same  as  that  of  their  an- 
cestors the  Phoenicians,  and  was  consequently  polluted  by  sanguinary 
vites  and  human  sacrifices.  But  the  Carthaginians  were  not  averse  to 
the  introduction  of  foreign  goods ;  they  adopted  the  worship  of  Ceres 
from  the  Sicilians,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  the  oracle  of  Delphi.  It  does 
not  appear  that  there  was  a  distinct  sacerdotal  caste,  or  even  order,  in 
Carthage  ;  the  priestly  functions  were  united  with  the  magisterial. 

A  species  of  national  banking  was  established  at  Carthage  which 
was  very  curious.  Pieces  of  a  compound  metal,  the  secret  of  whose 
composition  was  strictly  preserved,  in  order  to  prevent  forgery,  were 
sewed  up  in  leather  coverings,  and  marked  with  a  government  seal, 
which  declared  their  nominal  value.  This  money  was,  of  course,  cur- 
rent only  in  Carthage  itself.  The  public  revenues  of  Carthage  were 
derived  from  the  tribute  imposed  on  the  dependant  cities  and  African 
tribes,  from  the  customhouse  duties  collected  in  the  port,  and  from  the 
Spanish  mines,  the  richest  of  which  were  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Carthago  Nova,  the  modern  city  of  Carthagena. 

The  Carthaginians,  like  their  ancestors  the  Phoenicians,  paid  great 
attention  to  naval  affairs,  and  long  possessed  maritime  supremacy  over 
the  western  Mediterranean.  They  were  eminent  for  their  skill  in  ship- 
building, and  it  was  after  the  model  of  a  Carthaginian  galley,  accident- 
ally stranded,  that  the  Romans  built  their  first  fleet. 

The  Carthaginians  most  commonly  used  triremes,  or  galleys  with 
three  banks  of  oars,  but  we  read  of  their  using  ships  with  five  banks, 
and  in  one  instance  with  seven.  The  rowers  were  composed  of  slaves 
bought  by  the  state  for  this  particular  purpose,  and  as  they  required 
constant  practice,  formed  a  permanent  body,  which  was  not  disbanded 
in  time  of  peace.  The  office  of  admiral  was  rarely  united  to  that  of 
general,  and  the  naval  commanders,  even  when  acting  in  concert  with 
the  military,  received  their  orders  direct  from  the  senate. 

Carthage  supported  numerous  land  armies  ;  but,  unlike  most  other 
ancient  states,  its  forces  were  chiefly  composed  of  mercenaries  and 
slaves  ;  the  citizens  themselves,  engrossed  by  commercial  pursuits, 
were  unwilling  to  encounter  the  hardships  and  perils  of  a  campaign. 
There  was,  however,  always  one  Carthaginian  corps,  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  pride  of  the  army. 

Section  III. — History  of  Carthage  from  the  Foundation  of  Uie  City  to  the 
Commencement  of  the  Syracusan  Wars. 

FROM    B.    C.    880    TO    B.    C.    416. 

Di'do,  after  having  escaped  from  the  tyranny  of  her  brother  Pygma- 
lion, chose  for  her  new  country  the  Carthaginian  peninsula.  She  is 
said  to  have  acquired  by  a  fraudulent  purchase,  the  ground  on  which 
Jie  city  was  built ;  but  this  legend  is  unworthy  of  serious  notice.     At 


CARTHAGE..  71 

first  the  CartLaginians  were  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  the  neighbor- 
ing barbarian  princes  ;  but  when  their  riches  and  strength  increased, 
they  shook  of  this  degrading  yoke,  and  extended  their  dominion  l)y  th<? 
subjection  of  the  nearest  native  tribes  in  the  interior,  and  by  new 
establishments  along  the  coasts.  The  more  ancient  Phoenician  colo- 
nies, such  as  U'tica  and  Lep'tis,  far  from  feeling  jealous  of  the  rising 
power  of  Carthage,  joined  in  a  federation,  of  which  the  new  city  was 
recognised  as  the  head.  The  Greek  settlers  at  Cyrene,  whose  state 
had  attained  great  commercial  prosperity,  viewed  the  Carthaginians  with 
more  jealousy,  and  war  soon  broke  out  between  the  rival  cities. 

^Vhile  the  Persian  empire  was  rising  into  importance  in  the  cast,  Car- 
thage was  fast  acquiring  supremacy  over  the  western  world,  chiefly  by 
means  nf  the  family  of  Mago — a  family  that  held  the  chief  power  of 
the  state  for  more  than  a  century.  But  just  as  they  were  risuig  into 
eminence,  they  had  to  encounter  a  formidable  enemy  in  the  western 
Mediterranean,  whose  proved  skill  and  courage  threatened  dangerous 
rivalry.  This  led  to  one  of  the  first  naval  engagements  recorded  in 
history,  and  arose  from  the  following  circumstances  : — 

After  Cy'rus  had  overthrown  Croe'sus,  he  intrusted  the  subjugation 
of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  to  Har'pagus,  one  of  his  generals, 
and  returned  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Babylonia.  One  of  the  first 
places  against  which  Har'pagus  directed  his  efforts  was  Phocae'a,  the 
most  northern  city  of  Ionia  (b.  c.  546).  Its  inhabitants  were  celebra- 
ted for  their  commercial  enterprise  and  skill  in  navigation ;  they  had 
frequently  visited*the  coast  of  Spain,  and  ventured  beyond  the  pillars 
of  Hercules.  But  they  had  not  strength  to  resist  the  myriads  of  Per- 
sia ;  and  when  summoned  by  Har'pagus,  they  begged  for  a  short  inter- 
val to  deliberate  on  his  proposals.  During  this  period,  they  embarked 
their  wives,  children,  and  moveable  property,  on  board  their  galleys,  and 
abandoned  the  naked  walls  of  their  city  to  the  Persians.  They  pro- 
ceeded to  the  island  of  Cor'sica,  pai:  of  which  was  already  occupied  by 
the  Carthaginians,  and  prepared  to  establish  themselves  on  its  coasts. 
The  Carthaginians  and  the  Tyrrhenians,  or  Tuscans,  dreading  the 
rivalry  of  the  enterprising  Phocasans,  entered  into  an  alliance  for  their 
destruction,  and  sent  a  fleet  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  sail  to  drive 
them  from  Cor'sica.  The  Phocseans,  with  half  the  number  of  vessels, 
gained  a  brilliant  victory ;  but,  conscious  that  their  numbers  were  too 
weak  to  sustain  repeated  attacks,  they  abandoned  Cor'sica  for  the 
shores  of  Gaul,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Marseilles. 

In  the  year  that  the  Tarquins  were  expelled,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
Detween  the  republics  of  Rome  and  Carthage  (b.  c.  509) ;  from  the 
terms  of  which  it  appears  that  the  Carthaginians  were  already  supreme 
masters  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  and  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and 
that  they  possessed  the  Balearic  islands,  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
Sicily  and  Spain. 

Ever  since  the  seafight  off  Cor'sica,  the  Carthaginians  had  a  jeal 
ous  dread  of  Grecian  valor  and  enterprise,  Avhich  was  naturally  aggra 
vated  by  the  increasing  wealth  and  power  of  the  Greek  colonies  h 
Sicily  and  southern  Italy.  When  X'lr'xes,  tlierefore,  was  preparing  tc 
invade  Hel'las,  they  readily  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Persian 
monarch,  and  agreed  to  attack  the  colonies,  while  he  waged  war  against 


72  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

>ne  parent  state.  An  armament  was  accordingly  prepared,  whose  mag 
nitude  shows  the  extensive  power,  and  resources  of  Carthage.  It  con- 
sisted of  two  thousand  ships  of  war,  three  thousand  transports  and  ves- 
oiels  of  burden,  and  a  land  army  amounting  to  three  hundred  thousand 
;iien.  The  command  of  the  whole  was  intrusted  to  Hamil'car,  the 
head  of  the  illustrious  family  of  Mago.  This  immense  army  consisted 
chiefly  of  African  mercenaries,  and  was  composed  of  what  are  called 
light  troops.  They  were,  however,  wholly  undisciplined,  and  if  de- 
feated in  the  first  onset  could  rarely  be  persuaded  to  renew  the  attack. 

A  landing  was  effected,  without  loss,  at  Panor'mus  (the  modern  Pal- 
ermo) ;  and  when  the  troops  were  refreshed,  HamiFcar  advanced  and  laid 
close  siege  to  Himera.  The  governor  Theron,  made  a  vigorous  defence, 
though  pressed  not  only  by  the  overwhelming  forces  of  the  enemy,  but 
by  the  still  more  grievous  pressure  of  famine.  Foreseeing,  however, 
that  the  town,  unless  speedily  relieved,  must  be  forced  to  surrender,  he 
sent  an  urgent  request  for  assistance  to  Syracuse. 

Gelon,  king  of  Syracuse,  could  only  collect  about  five  thousand  horse 
and  filleen  thousand  foot.  With  this  very  disproportionate  force  he 
marched  against  the  Carthaginians,  to  take  advantage  of  any  opportu- 
nity that  fortune  might  offer.  On  his  road  he  fortunately  captured  a 
messenger  from  the  Selinuntines  to  Ilamil'car,  promising  on  a  certain 
day  to  join  him  with  the  auxiliary  force  of  cavalry  that  he  had  demand- 
ed. Though  his  forces  were  formidable,  in  point  of  numbers,  HamiF- 
car  was  too  prudent  to  ti'ust  such  undisciplined  hordes,  unless  aided  by 
regular  soldiers,  and  had  therefore  offered  large  bribes*to  win  over  some 
of  the  Grecian  states  in  Sicily  to  his  side.  The  Selinuntines  alone 
listened  to  his  terms,  and  promised  to  aid  him  against  their  old  enemies 
the  Syracusans.  Gelon  sent  the  letter  forward  to  Hamil'car  ;  and  hav- 
ing taking  measures  to  intercept  the  treacherous  Selinuntines,  he  de- 
spatched a  chosen  body  of  his  own  troops  to  the  Carthaginian  camp  in 
their  stead  at  the  specified  time.  The  Syracusans  being  admitted  with- 
out any  suspicion^  suddenly  galloped  to  the  general's  tent,  slew  HamiF- 
car  and  his  principal  officers,  and  then,  hurrying  to  the  harbor,  set  fire 
to  the  fleet.  The  blaze  of  the  burning  vessels,  the  cries  of  Hamil'car's 
servants,  and  the  shouts  of  the  Syracusans,  threw  the  whole  Carthagin- 
ian army  into  confusion  ;  in  the  midst  of  which  they  were  attacked  by 
Gelon  with  the  rest  of  his  forces.  Without  leaders  and  without  com- 
mand, the  Carthaginians  could  make  no  effective  resistance  ;  more  than 
half  of  the  invaders  fell  in  the  field ;  the  remainder,  without  arms  and 
without  provisions,  sought  shelter  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  where 
most  of  thrm  perished.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  great  victory  was 
won  on  the  same  day  that  the  battle  of  Thermop'ylse  was  fought,  and 
the  Persian  fleet  defeated  at  Artemis^ium  ;  three  of  the  noblest  triumphs 
obtained  in  the  struggle  for  Grecian  freedom  (b.  c.  480). 

Tlie  miserable  remnant  of  the  Carthaginian  troops  rallied  under  Gis'- 
gon,  the  son  of  HamiFcar  ;  but  the  new  general  found  it  impossible  to 
remedy  the  disorganization  occasioned  by  the  late  defeat,  and  was 
forced  to  surrender  at  discretion. 

For  seventy  years  after  this  defeat,  little  is  kno\vn  of  the  history  of 
Carthage,  except  that  during  that  period  the  state  greatly  extended  its 
Dower  over  the  native  tribes  of  Africa,  and  gained  important  acquis! 


CARTHAGE.  73 

tions  of  lerritory  from  the  Cyrenians.  Sicily  was,  in  the  rr.eantime 
the  scene  of  a  war  which  threatened  total  annihilation  to  Syracuse,  the 
Athenians  having  invaded  the  island,  and  laid  siege  to  that  city.  Bui 
when  the  Athenians  were  totally  defeated  (b.  c.  413),  the  Carthagin- 
ians had  their  attention  once  more  directed  to  Sicilian  politics  by  an 
embassy  from  the  Segestans,  seeking  their  protection  against  the  Syra- 
cusans,  whose  wratli  they  had  provoked  by  their  alliance  with  the 
Athenians. 

Section  IV. — History  of  Carthage  during  the  Sicilian  Wars. 
FROM  B.  c.  416   TO  B.  c.  264. 

The  Carthaginians  gladly  seized  the  pretext  afforded  them  by  the 
Segestan  embassy ;  and  a  new  expedition  was  sent  against  Sicily, 
ander  the  command  of  Han'nibal,  the  son  of  Gis'gon.  This  new  in- 
vasion was  crowned  with  success ;  Selinun'tum  and  Him'era  were 
Jaken  by  storm,  and  their  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.  The  Sicilians 
solicited  a  truce,  which  was  granted  on  terms  extremely  favorable  to 
the  Carthaginians. 

So  elated  was  the  state  at  this  success,  that  nothing  less  than  the 
entire  subjugation  of  Sicily  was  contemplated.  In'ules,  the  son  of 
Han'no,  and  Han'nibal,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  armament,  proceeded 
to  besiege  Agrigcii'tum,  the  second  city  of  the  island.  During  the 
siege,  which  lasted  eight  months,  the  assailants  suffered  severely  from 
pestilential  disease,  and  the  garrison  from  famine.  After  having  en- 
dured with  wonderful  patience  the  severest  extremities  of  famine,  the 
Agrigentines  forced  their  way  through  the  enemies'  lines  by  night,  and 
retreated  to  Gela,  abandoning  the  aged,  the  sick,  and  the  wounded,  to 
the  mercy  of  the  Carthaginians.  Himil'co,  who  had  succeeded  to  the 
chief  command  on  the  death  of  his  father  Han'nibal,  ordered  these 
helpless  victims  to  be  massacred.  Gela  soon  shared  the  fate  of  Agri- 
gen'tum ;  and  Diony'sius  I.,  the  king  of  Syracuse,  who  had  taken  the 
command  of  the  confederated  Sicilians,  deemed  it  prudent  to  open  ne- 
gotiations for  peace.  A  treaty  was  concluded  (b.  c.  405),  which 
neither  party  intended  to  observe  longer  than  the  necessary  preparations 
for  a  more  decisive  contest  would  require.  Scarcely  were  the  Cartha- 
ginians withdrawn,  when  Diony'sius  sent  deputies  to  all  the  Greek 
states  in  Sicilj ,  exhorting  them  by  a  simultaneous  effort  to  expel  all  in- 
truders, and  secure  their  future  independence.  His  machinations  Avere 
successful ;  the  Carthaginian  merchants  who,  on  the  faith  of  the  late 
treaty,  had  settled  in  the  principal  commercial  town,  were  perfidiously 
massacred ;  while  Diony'sius,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  cap- 
tured several  of  the  most  important  Carthaginian  fortresses. 

All  the  forces  that  the  wealth  of  Carthage  could  procure  were  speed- 
ily collected  to  punish  this  treachery ;  and  Himil'co  advanced  against 
Syracuse,  and  laid  siege  to  it  with  the  fairest  prospects  of  success. 
But  a  plague  of  such  uncommon  virulence  broke  out  in  the  Carthagin- 
ian camp,  that  the  living  were  unable  to  bury  the  dead,  and  information 
of  this  state  of  things  being  conveyed  to  Sy'racuse,  Diony'sius  sallied 
forth  with  all  his  forces,  and  assaulted  the  Carthaginian  camp.     Scarce 


74  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

any  attempt  was  n!acl8#at  resistance:  night  alone  put  an  e.id  to  tha 
slaugliter  ;  and  when  morning  dawned,  Himil'co  found  that  nothing  but 
a  speedy  surrender  could  save  him  and  his  followers  from  total  ruin. 
He  stinulated  only  for  the  lives  of  himself  and  the  Carthaginians,  aban- 
doning  all  his  auxiliaries  to  the  ""^engeance  of  the  Syracusans. 

The  Carthaginians  sent  another  armament,  commanded  by  Mago,  a 
nobleman  of  high  rank,  to  retrieve  their  losses  in  Sicily ;  but  their 
forces  were  routed  with  great  slaughter,  and  the  leader  slain.  The 
younger  Mago,  son  of  the  late  general,  having  received  a  strong  rein- 
forcement from  Africa,  hazarded  a  second  engagement,  in  which  the 
Syracusans  were  totally  defeated.  Diony^sius  was  induced  by  thia 
overthrovtT  to  solicit  a  peace,  which  v/as  concluded  on  terms  honorable 
to  both  parties. 

The  conclusion  of  the  Sicilian  war  was  follov/ed  by  a  plague,  which 
destroyed  multitudes  of  the  citizens  of  Carthage  (b.  c.  347) ;  and 
scarcely  had  this  visitation  passed  away,  when  insurrections  broke  out 
in  the  African  provinces,  and  in  the  colonies  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 
But  the  Carthaginian  senate  showed  itself  equal  to  the  crisis  ;  by  a 
course  of  policy  in  which  firmness  was  tempered  by  conciliation,  these 
dangers  were  averted,  and  the  state  restored  to  its  former  vigor  and 
prosperity. 

In  the  meantime,  Sy'racuse  was  weakened  by  the  death  of  Diony'- 
sius  I.,  who,  though  stigmatized  as  a  tyrant  by  the  Greek  historians, 
appears  to  have  been  a  wise  and  prudent  sovereign.  "  No  one,"  said 
Scip'io  Africtinus,  "  ever  concerted  his  schemes  with  more  wisdom,  or 
executed  them  with  more  energy,  than  the  elder  Diony'sius."  His 
son,  Diony'sius  H.,  was  a  profligate  prince,  whose  excesses  filled  the 
state  with  tumult  and  distraction.  The  Carthaginians  eagerly  embra- 
ced the  opportunity  of  accomplishing  the  favorite  object  of  their  policy, 
the  conquest  of  Sicily ;  and  a  great  annament  was  prepared,  of  which 
M;igo  was  appointed  the  chief  commander. 

Mago,  at  the  very  first  attack,  made  himself  master  of  the  harbor  of 
Sy'racuse.  The  Syracusans,  destitute  of  money,  of  anns,  and  almost 
of  hope,  solicited  the  aid  of  the  Corinthians  ;  and  Timoleon,  one  of 
the  greatest  generals  and  purest  patriots  of  antiquity,  was  sent  to  their 
assistance.  A  great  portion  of  the  Carthaginian  army  had  been  levied 
in  the  Greek  colonies ;  Timoleon,  hoping  to  work  on  their  patriotic 
feelings,  addressed  letters  to  the  leaders  of  these  mercenaries,  expos- 
tulating with  them  on  the  disgrace  of  bearing  arms  against  their  coun- 
trymen :  and  though  he  did  not  prevail  on  any  to  desert,  yet  Mago, 
having  heard  of  these  intrigues,  felt  such  distrust  of  his  followers,  that 
he  at  once  abandoned  Sy'racuse,  and  returned  home. 

Great  was  the  indignation  of  the  Carthaginians  at  this  unexpected 
termination  of  the  campaign  ;  Mago  committed  suicide  to  escape  their 
wrath.  New  forces  were  raised  to  retrieve  their  losses  in  Sicily  ;  two 
generals,  Han'nibal  and  Hamil'car  were  appointed  to  the  command, 
and  were  intrusted  with  an  army  of  seventy  thousand  men,  and  a  fleet 
consisting  of  two  hvmdred  war-galleys,  and  a  thousand  ships  of  burden. 

Timoleon  hasted  to  meet  the  invaders,  though  his    forces  barely 
amounted  to  seven  thousand  men.     He  unexpectedly  attacked  the  Car 
haginian  army  on  its  march  near  the  river  Crimisus  ;  and  the  confu 


CARTHAGE. 


75 


sion  produced  by  tli<5  surprise  terminated  in  a. total  rout.  The  SyracU' 
sans  captured  town  after  town,  until  at  length  the  senate  of  Carthage 
was  forced  to  solicit  peace,  and  accept  the  terras  dictated  by  the  con- 
queror. 

While  Carthage  was  thus  unfortunate  abroad,  her  liberties  at  home 
narrowly  escaped  destruction.  Han'no,  one  of  the  principal  leaders 
of  the  state,  resolved  to  make  himself  master  of  his  country  by  poison- 
ing the  leaders  of  the  senate  at  a  banquet.  This  diabolical  plot  was 
frustrated  by  a  timely  discovery,  and  the  exasperated  traitor  resolved  to 
hazard  an  open  rebellion.  Having  armed  his  slaves,  to  the  number  of 
twenty  thousand,  he  took  the  field,  and  invited  the  native  African  tribes 
to  join  his  standard.  This  appeal  was  disregarded  ;  and  before  Han'no 
could  levy  fresh  forces,  he  was  surrounded  by  an  army  hastily  raised, 
his  followers  routed,  and  himself  made  prisoner.  He  was  put  to  death 
with  the  most  cruel  tortures ;  and,  according  to  the  barbarous  custom 
of  Carthage,  his  children  and  nearest  relatives  shared  the  same  fate. 

New  dissensions  in  Sy'racuse  afforded  the  Carthaginians  a  fresh 
pretext  for  meddling  in  the"  affairs  of  Sicily.  Agath'ocles,  an  intriguing 
demagogue  of  mean  birth,  had  acquired  great  influence  among  his 
countrymen,  and,  finally,  by  the  secret  aid  of  the  Carthaginians,  be- 
came master  of  the  state.  But  he  soon  showed  little  regard  for  the 
ties  of  gratitude,  and  declared  his  resolution  to  expel  his  benefactors 
from  the  island.  The  Carthaginian  senate  immediately  sent  Hamircar 
with  a  powerful  army  against  this  new  enemy.  Agath^ocles  was  com- 
pletely defeated,  and  forced  to  shut  himself  up  within  the  walls  of  Sy'- 
racuse. The  city  was  soon  closely  invested,  and  everything  seemed 
to  promise  Hamil'car  complete  success  at  no  distant  day,  when  Aga- 
th'ocles  suddenly  baffled  all  his  calculations,  by  adopting  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  measures  recorded  in  history.  Having  assembled  the 
Syracusans,  he  declared  that  he  could  liberate  them  from  all  dangers, 
if  an  army  and  a  small  sum  of  money  were  placed  at  his  disposal ; 
adding,  that  his  plan  would  be  instantly  defeated,  if  its  nature  was  di- 
vulged. An  army  of  liberated  slaves  was  hastily  levied,  the  sum  of 
fifty  talents  intrus'^ted  to  his  discretion,  and  a  fleet  prepared  in  secret ; 
when  all  was  ready,  Agath'ocles  announced  his  design  of  transporimg 
his  forces  into  Africa,  and  compelling  the  Carthaginians,  by  the  dread 
of  a  nearer  danger,  to  abandon  Sicily. 

Having  eluded  the  vigilance  of  the  blockading  squadron,  Agath'ocles 
an ived  safely  in  Africa  before  the  Carthaginians  had  received  the  sligH- 
est  notion  of  his  intention  (b.  c.  309).  To  inspire  his  soldiers  with  a 
resolution  to  conquer  or  die,  he  cut  ofi'  all  chance  of  retreat  by  burning 
his  transports  ;  then  fearlessly  advancing,  he  stormed  Tunis  and  sev- 
eral other  cities,  the  plunder  of  which  he  divided  among  his  soldiers, 
and  instigated  the  African  princes  to  throw  off"  the  yoke  of  Carthage. 
Han'no  and  Bomil'car  were  sent  to  check  the  progress  of  this  daring 
invader,  Avith  forces  nearly  four  times  as  great  as  the  Sicilian  army ; 
but  Agath%)cles  did  not  decline  the  engagement.  His  valor  was  re- 
warded by  a  decisive  victory.  Following  up  his  success,  Agath'ocles 
stormed  the  enemies'  camp,  where  were  found  heaps  of  fetters  and 
chains,  which  the  Carthaginians,  confident  of  success,  had  prepared  for 
the  invading  army. 


76  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Dreadful  consternation  was  produced  in  Carthage  by  the  news  of 
this  unexpected  defeat.  Hamil'car,  who  was  vigorously  pressing  for- 
ward the  siege  of  Sy'racuse,  was  surprised  by  the  unexper*&d  order  to 
return  home  and  defend  his  own  country.  He  broke  up  tne  siege,  and 
sent  home  five  thousand  of  his  best  troops.  Having  supplied  their 
place  by  hiring  fresh  mercenaries,  he  again  invaded  the  Syracusan  ter- 
ritories ;  but  was  unexpectedly  attacked,  defeated,  and  slain. 

Ophel'las,  king  of  Cyre'ne,had  joined  Agath'ocles  with  aU  his  for- 
ces ;  but  the  Syracusan  monarch,  jealous  of  his  influence,  had  him  pri- 
vately poisoned.  Having  thus  removed  his  rival,  he  thought  he  might 
safely  revisit  Sicily,  and  intrust  the  command  of  the  African  aimy  to 
his  son.  But,  during  his  absence,  the  fruits  of  all  his  fonner  labors 
were  lost :  the  army  under  a  young  and  inexperienced  general,  threw 
aside  the  restraiiJs  of  discipline ;  the  Greek  estates,  indignant  at  the 
murder  of  Ophel'las,  withheld  their  contingents ;  and  the  African 
princes  renewed  their  allegiance  to  Carthage.  Agath'ocles  hearing  of 
these  disorders,  hasted  to  remedy  them  :  but  finding  all  his  efforts  vain, 
he  fled  back  to  Sicily,  abandoning  both  his  sons  and  his  soldiers.  The 
army,  exasperated  by  his  desertion,  slew  their/leaders,  and  surrendered 
themselves  to  the  Carthaginians ;  and  Agath'ocles  died  soon  after, 
either  from  grief  or  poison. 

After  the  death  of  this  formidable  enemy,  the  Carthaginians  renewed 
their  intrigues  in  Sicily,  and  soon  acquired  a  predominant  influence  in 
the  island.  Finding  themselves  in  danger  of  utter  ruin,  the  Greek  col- 
onies solicited  the  aid  of  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Agath'ocles,  and  was  then  in  Italy  endeavoring  to  protect 
the  colonies  of  Magna  Grse'cia  from  the  increasing  power  of  the  Ro- 
mans (b.  C.  277).  Pyr'rhus  made  a  very  successlul  campaign  in 
Sicily,  every  Carthaginian  town,  except  Lilybae'um,  submitted  to  his 
arms.  But  he  was  soon  induced  to  return  to  Italy;  and  the  fruits  of 
his  victories  were  lost  almos*,  as  rapidly  as  they  had  been  acquired, 
notwithstanding  the  heroic  exertions  of  Hiero,  king  of  Sy'racuse. 

Section  V. — From  the  Commencement  of  the  Roman  Wars  to  the  Destruction 

of  Carthage. 

FROM   B.  c.  264   TO   B.  c.  146. 

When  Pyr'rhus  was  leaving  Sicily,  he  exclaimed  to  his  attendants, 
"  What  a  fine  field  of  battle  we  are  leaving  to  the  Carthaginians  and 
Romans  ?"  His  prediction  was  soon  verified,  though  the  circumstances 
that  precipitated  the  contest  were  apparently  of  little  importance.  A 
body  of  mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  Agath'ocles,  after  the  death  of  that 
monarch,  treacherously  got  possession  of  Messina,  and  put  all  the  in- 
habitants to  the  sword.  Hiero,  king  of  Sy'racuse,  marched  against  the 
Mamertines,  as  the  independent  companies  that  had  seized  Messina 
were  called,  and  defeated  them  in  the  field.  Half  the  Mamertines  in- 
voked the  aid  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  placed  them  in  immediate  pos- 
session of  the  citadel,  while  the  others  sought  the  powerful  protection 
of  Rome.  After  much  hesitation,  the  Romans  consented  to  grant  the 
required  aid.  The  citadel  of  Messina  was  taken  after  a  brief  siege, 
and  the  (Carthaginians  were  routed  with  greU  slaughter.     Thus  com- 


CARTHAGE.  77 

menced  the  first  Punic  war,  which  lasted  twenty -three  years,  the  de- 
tails of  which  will  be  found  in  the  chapters  on  Roman  history. 

In  this  war  Carthage  lost  Sicily,  and  its  supremacy  in  the  western 
Mediterranean,  which  involved  the  fate  of  all  its  other  insular  posses- 
sions. The  treasury  was  exhausted,  and  money  was  wanting  to  pay  the 
arrears  due  to  the  soldiers.  The  mercenaries  mutinied,  and  advancing 
in  a  body,  laid  siege  to  Tunis.  Thence  they  marched  against  U'tica, 
while  the  light  African  cavalry  that  had  joined  in  the  rebellion  ravaged 
the  country  up  to  the  very  gates  of  Carthage.  The  revolters  were  sub- 
dued ;  but  not  until  they  had  reduced  the  fairest  provinces  of  the  repub- 
lic to  a  desert.  The  mercenaries  in  Sardinia  had  also  thrown  off  their 
allegiance ;  and  the  Romans,  in  violation  of  the  recent  peace,  took 
possession  of  the  island  ;  an  injury  which  Carthage  was  unable  to 
resent. 

Hamil'car  Bar'ca,*  grieved  to  see  his  country  sinking,  formed  a  pro- 
ject for  raising  it  once  more  to  an  equality  with  its  imperious  rival,  by 
completely  subduing  the  Spanish  peninsula.  His  son  Hannibal,  then 
a  boy  only  nine  years  of  age,  earnestly  besought  leave  to  accompany 
his  father  on  this  expedition ;  but  before  granting  the  request,  Ham- 
il'car led  the  boy  to  the  altar,  and  made  him  swear  eternal  hostility  to 
Rome. 

During  nine  years  Hamil'car  held  the  command  in  Spain,  and  found 
means,  either  by  force  or  negotiation,  to  subdue  almost  the  entire 
country.  He  used  the  treasures  he  acquired  to  strengthen  the  influence 
of  the  Barcan  family  in  the  state,  relying  chiefly  on  the  democracy  for 
support  against  his  great  rival  Han'no,  who  had  the  chief  influence 
among  the  nobility. 

Has'drubal,  the  son-in-law  of  Hamil'car,  succeeded  to  his  power  and 
his  projects.  He  is  suspected  of  having  designed  to  establish  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  in  Spain,  after  having  failed  to  make  himself  absolute 
in  Carthage.  He  built  a  new  capital  with  regal  splendor,  wliich  re- 
ceived the  name  of  New  Carthage  ;  the  richest  silver-mines  v/ere  opened 
in  its  neighborhood,  and  enormous  bribes  were  sent  to  Carthage  to  dis- 
arm jealousy  or  stifle  inquiry.  Unlike  other  Carthaginian  governors  of 
provinces,  he  made  every  possible  exertion  to  win  the  affections  of  the 
native  Spaniards,  and  he  married  the  daughter  of  one  of  their  kings. 
The  Romans  were  at  length  alarmed  by  his  success,  and  compelled  him 
to  oign  a  treaty,  by  which  he  was  bound  to  abstain  from  passing  the 
Iberus  (Ebro),  or  attacking  the  territory  of  the  Saguntines. 

When  Has'drubal  fell  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin,  the  Barcan  family 
had  sufiicient  mfluence  to  have  Han'nibal  appointed  his  successor, 
though  he  had  barely  attained  his  legal  majority  (b.  c.  221).  The 
youthful  general  having  gained  several  victories  over  the  Spaniards, 
boldly  laid  siege  to  Sagun'tum,  and  thus  caused  the  second  war  with 
the  Romans,  for  the  details  of  which  we  must  refer  to  the  chapters  on 
Roman  history. 

During  the  course  of  this  war,  the  Carthaginian  navy,  the  source  of 
its  greatness  and  the  security  of  its  strength,  was  neglected.  The  spirit 
of  party  also  raged  violently  in  Carthage  itself.     At  the  conclusion  of  the 

•  Barca  signifies  "  thunder"  in  the  Phoenician  language,  and  also  in  Hebrew, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  Phoenician.    The  Hebrew  root  is  P^^  tc  thunder. 


78  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

war,  Carthage  was  deprived  of  all  her  possessions  out  of  Africa,  and 
her  lleet  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans.  Thenceforward 
Carthage  was  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  commercial  city  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Rome.  A  powerful  rival  also  was  raised  against  the  repub- 
lic in  Africa  itself  by  the  alliance  of  the  Numidian  king  Massinis'sa 
with  the  Romans  ;  and  that  monarch  took  possession  of  most  of  the 
western  Carthaginian  colonies. 

Han'nibal,  notwithstanding  his  late  reverses,  continued  at  the  head 
of  the  Carthaginian  state,  and  reformed  several  abuses  that  had  crept 
into  the  management  of  the  finances  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
But  these  judicious  reforms  provoked  the  enmity  of  the  factious  nobles 
who  had  hitherto  been  permitted  to  fatten  on  public  plunder  ;  they  joined 
with  the  old  rivals  of  the  Barcan  family,  and  even  degraded  themselves 
so  far  as  to  act  as  spies  for  the  Romans,  who  still  dreaded  the  abilities 
of  Han'nibal.  In  consequence  of  their  machinations  the  old  general 
was  forced  to  fly  from  the  country  he  had  so  long  labored  to  serve  ; 
and,  after  several  vicissitudes,  died  of  poison,  to  escape  the  mean  and 
malignant  persecution  of  the  Romans,  v/hose  hatred  followed  him  in 
his  exile,  and  compelled  the  king  of  Bithynia  to  refuse  him  protection. 
The  mound  which  marks  his  last  resting-place  is  still  a  remarkable 
object. 

But  the  Carthaginians  had  soon  reason  to  lament  the  loss  of  their 
champion  :  the  Romans  were  not  conciliated  by  the  expulsion  of  Han'- 
nibal ;  and  Massinis'sa,  relying  upon  their  support,  made  frequent  in- 
cursions into  the  teiritories  of  the  republic.  Both  parties  complained 
of  each  other  as  aggressors  before  the  Roman  senate  (b.  c.  162)  ;  bu* 
though  they  received  an  equal  hearing,  the  decision  was  long  previously 
settled  in  favor  of  Massinis'sa.  While  these  negotiations  were  pend- 
ing, Carthage  was  harassed  by  political  dissension  ;  the  popular  party 
— believing,  and  not  without  reason,  that  the  low  estate  of  the  republic 
was  chiefly  owing  to  the  animosity  that  the  aristocratic  faction  had 
shown  to  the  Barcan  family,  and  especially  to  Han'nibal,  on  account 
of  his  financial  and  judicial  reform — convened  a  tumultuous  assembly, 
and  sent  forty  of  the  pricipal  senators  into  banishment,  exacting  an  oath 
from  the  citizens  that  they  would  never  permit  their  return.  The  exiles 
sought  refuge  with  Massinis'sa,  who  sent  his  sons  to  intercede  with  the 
Carthagiiiian  populace  in  their  favor.  The  Numidian  princes  were  not 
only  refused  admittance  to  the  city,  but  ignominiously  chased  from  their 
territory.  Such  an  insult  naturally  provoked  a  fresh  war,  in  whiciA 
the  Carthaginians  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  submit  to  the  most  oner- 
ous conditions. 

The  Roman  senatj,  continually  solicited  by  the  elder  Cato,  at  length 
came  to  the  resolution  of  totally  destroying  Carthage  ;  but  it  was  diffi- 
cult to  discover  a  pretext  for  war  against  a  state  which,  conscious  of  its 
v/eakness,  had  resolved  to  obey  every  command.  The  Carthaginians 
gave  up  three  hundred  of  their  noblest  youths  as  hostages,  surrendered 
their  ships-of-war  and  their  magazines  of  arms  ;  but  when,  after  all 
these  concessions,  they  were  ordered  to  abandon  their  city,  they  took 
courage  from  despair,  and  absolutely  refused  obedience.  War  was  in- 
stantly proclaimed ;  the  Romans  met  with  almost  uninterrupted  suc- 
cess ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  four  years  .hat  the  war  lae*ed,  Carthage 


CARTHAGE.  79 

was  taken  by  storm,  and   its   magnificent  edifices  levelled  with  the 
ground. 

Section  VI. — Navigation,  Trade,  and.  Commerce  of  Carthage. 

The  colonial  and  connnercial  policy  of  the  Carthaginians  was  far 
less  generous  than  that  of  their  ancestors,  the  Pha3nicians ;  the  harbors 
of  the  capital  were  open  to  the  ships  and  merchants  of  foreign  nations, 
but  admission  was  either  wholly  refused  to  all  the  remaining  ports  in  the 
territory  of  the  republic,  or  subjected  to  the  most  onerous  restrictions. 
This  selfish  system,  which  has  been  imitated  by  too  many  modern 
commercial  states,  was  forced  upon  the  Carthaginians  by  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances. Their  trade  with  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Africa  was  car- 
ried on  principally  by  barter  ;  the  ignorant  savages  exchanged  valuable 
commodities  for  showy  trifles  ;  and  the  admission  of  competition  would 
at  once  have  shown  them  how  much  they  lost  in  the  exchange.  Had 
the  Carthaginians,  under  such  circumstances,  permitted  free  trade,  they 
would,  in  fact,  have  destroyed  their  own  market. 

The  principal  commerce  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  western  Medit- 
erranean was  with  the  Greek  colonies  in  Sicily  and  the  south  of  Italy, 
from  which  they  obtained  wine  and  oil,  in  exchange  for  negro  slaves, 
precious  stones,  and  gold,  procured  from  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  also 
for  cotton  cloths  manufactured  at  Carthage  and  in  the  island  of  Malta. 
Cor'sica  supplied  honey,  wax,  and  slaves  ;  Sardinia  yielded  abundance 
of  corn  ;  the  Balearic  islands  produced  the  best  breed  of  mules  ;  resin 
and  volcanic  products,  such  as  sulphur  and  pumice-stone,  were  obtained 
from  the  Lipari  islands  ;  and  southern  Spain  was,  as  we  have  already 
said,  the  chief  source  whence  the  nations  of  antiquity  procured  the 
precious  metals. 

Beyond  the  pillars  of  Hercules  the  Carthaginians  succeeded  the 
Phcenicians  in  the  tin  and  amber  trade  with  the  south  British  islands 
and  the  nations  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic.  After  the  destruction  of 
Carthage,  this  trade  fell  into  the  hands  of  their  earliest  rivals,  the 
Phocseans  of  Marseilles,  who  changed  its  route  ;  they  made  their  pur- 
chases on  the  north  shore  of  Gaul,  and  conveyed  their  goods  overland 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  in  that  age  a  journey  of  thirty  days. 

On  the  west  coast  of  Alrica  the  Carthaginian  colonies  studded  the 
shores  of  Morocco  and  Fez ;  but  their  great  mart  was  the  island  of 
Cer'ne,  now  Suana,  in  the  Atlantic  ocean  (29°  10'  N.  lat.,  10°  40'  W. 
long.).  On  this  island  was  the  great  depot  of  merchandise  ;  and  goods 
were  transported  from  it  in  light  barks  to  the  opposite  coast,  where  they 
were  bartered  with  the  native  inhabitants.  The  Carthaginian  exports 
were  trinkets,  saddlery,  linen,  or  more  probably,  cotton  webs,  pottery, 
and  arms  ;  for  which  they  received  imdressed  hides  and  elephants' 
teeth.  To  this  trade  was  added  a  very  lucrative  fishery  :  the  tunny  fish 
[thynnus  scomber),  which  is  still  plentiful  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
Africa,  was  deemed  a  great  luxury  by  the  Carthaginians.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  these  enterprising  merchants  had  some  in- 
tercourse with  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  that  their  navigators  advanced 
beyond  the  mouths  of  the  Senegal  and  Gambia  ;  but  the  caution  with 
which  everything  respecting  this  trade  was  concealed,  renders  it  iin* 
possible  to  determine  its  nature  and  extent  with  accuracy. 


80  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  discover  any  particulars  respecting  the  caravan- 
trade  which  the  Carthaginians  carried  on  from  their  southern  settle- 
ments with  the  interior  of  Africa.  From  the  districts  borderinsf  on  the 
desert  the  chief  articles  obtained  were  dates  and  salt ;  but  from  beyond 
the  desert,  the  imports  were  negro  slaves  and  gold-dust.  The  nature 
of  this  lucrative  commerce  was  the  more  easily  concealed,  as  the  cara 
vans  were  formed  not  at  Carthage,  but  at  remote  towns  in  the  interior, 
and  all  the  chief  staples  were  situated  on  the  confines  of  the  Great 
Desert. 


ORBCIAN  STATES.  81 


CHAPTER  VTTI. 

THE  FOUNDATION  OF 

THE    GRECIAN    STATES. 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline  of  Hellas. 

Greece  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Cambunian  mountains, 
which  separated  it  from  Macedonia  ;  on  the  east  by  the  iEgean,  on  iho 
south  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  seas.  Its 
extent  from  north  to  south  was  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  geo- 
graphical miles,  from  east  to  west  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  and 
consequently  its  area  was  about  34,000  square  miles  ;  making  a  small, 
indeed  too  small,  a  reduction  for  the  irregularity  of  its  outline.  No 
European  country  was  so  advantageously  situated  ;  on  the  eastern  side, 
the  iEgean  sea,  studded  with  islands,  brought  it  into  close  contact  with 
Asia  Minor  and  the  Phoenician  frontiers  ;  the  voyage  to  Egypt  was 
neither  long  nor  difficult,  though  it  afforded  not  so  many  resting-places 
to  the  mariners  ;  and  from  the  west  there  was  a  short  and  easy  pas- 
sage to  Italy.  The  entire  line  of  this  extensive  coast  was  indented 
with  bays  and  harbors,  offering  every  facility  for  navigation ;  while  the 
two  great  gulfs  that  divided  Hel'las,  or  northern  Greece,  from  the 
Peloponnesus,  or  southern  Greece,  must  have,  in  the  very  earliest  ages, 
forced  naval  affairs  on  the  attention  of  the  inhabitants. 

Nature  herself  has  formed  three  great  divisions  of  this  very  remark- 
able country.  The  Saronic  and  Corinthian  gulfs  sever  the  Pelopon- 
nesus from  Hel'las ;  and  this  latter  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal 
portions,  northern  and  southern,  by  the  chain  of  Mount  ffi'ta,  which 
traverses  it  obliquely,  severing  Thes'saly  and  Epirus  froir  central 
Hel'las. 

Thes'saly,  the  largest  of  all  the  Grecian  provinces,  may  be  generally 
described  as  an  extensive  table-land,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  tht 
mountains,  and  by  the  ^gean  sea,  close  to  whose  shores  rise  the  lofty 
peaks  of  Os'sa  and  Olym'pus.  Its  principal,  indeed  almost  its  only  river, 
is  the  Peneus,  which  rises  in  Mount  Pin'dus,  and  flowing  in  an  easterly 
direction,  falls  into  the  vEgean  sea.  Thes'saly  was  ruined  by  its  nat- 
ural wealth ;  the  inhabitants  rioted  in  sensual  enjoyments  ;  anarchy 
and  tyranny  followed  each  other  in  regular  succession  ;  and  thus  Thes' 
8aly  prepared  for  the  yoke  of  a  master,  was  the  first  to  submit  to  tht 
Persian  invaders,  and  afterward  to  the  Macedonian  Philip. 

Epirus  was,  next  to  Thes'saly,  the  largest  of  the  Grecian  provinces  , 
but  it  was  also  the  least  cultivated.  It  was  divided  into  two  provinces ; 
Molos'sis,  and  Thesprotia.     The  interior  of  Epirus  is  traversed  by  Mi/d 

6 


«2  AISCIENT  HISTORY 

ana  uncultivated  mountains.  The  wiklness  of  the  country,  and  the 
rudeness  of  the  inhabitants,  have  given  occasion  to  the  Greeks  to  rep- 
resent the  ri\  ers  Ach'eron  and  Cocytus,  which  flow  into  the  gulf  of 
Acherusia,  as  rivers  belonging  to  the  infernal  regions.  Its  oxen  and 
horses  were  unrivalled ;  and  it  was  also  celebrated  for  a  large  breed  of 
dogs,  called  Molossin,  whose  ferocity  is  still  remarked  by  the  traveller. 

Central  Grkecc,  or  Hel'las,  contained  nine  countries  :  1,  At'tica ; 
2,  Meg'aris  ;  3,  Boeotia  ;  4,  Phocis  ;  5,  eastern  Locris ;  6,  western 
Locris  ;  7,  Doris  ;  8,  iEtolia ;  9,  Acarnania. 

At'lica  is  a  headland  extending  in  a  southeasterly  direction  fc,bout 
sixty-three  miles  into  the  iEgean  sea.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles 
broad  at  its  base,  Avhence  it  gradually  tapers  toward  a  point,  until  it 
ends  in  the  rocky  promontory  of  Sunium  [Cape  Colonr^a),  m  Jie  sum- 
mit of  which  stood  a  celebrated  temple  of  Minerva.  It  was  not  a  fer- 
tile country,  never  being  able  to  produce  sufficient  com  for  the  support 
of  its  inhabitants  ;  but  it  had  rich  silver  mines  in  Mount  Larium,  ex- 
cellent marble  quarries  in  Mount  Pentel'icus,  and  the  ranges  of  hills,  by 
which  it  is  intersected  in  every  direction,  produced  abundance  of  ar- 
omatic plants,  from  which  swarms  cf  industrious  bees  formed  the  most 
celebrated  honey. 

Mega'ris,  the  smallest  of  the  Grecian  territories,  lay  west  of  At^tica, 
close'' to  the  Corinthian  isthmus.  It  capital  was  Mega'ra,  a  town  of 
considerable  strength. 

BcBotia  was  a  large  plain,  almost  wholly  surrounded  by  mountains : 
it  was  divided  by  Cithae'rou  from  At'tica,  a  mountain  celebrated  by  the 
poets  for  the  mystic  orgies  of  Bac'chus,  the  metamorphosis  of  Actae'on, 
the  death  of  Pen'theus,  and  the  exposure  of  CE'dipus.  On  the  west 
were  the  chains  of  Parnas'sus  and  Hel'icon,  sacred  to  the  Muses,  sep- 
arating it  from  Phocis  ;  and  on  the  north  it  was  divided  from  eastern 
Locris  by  a  prolongation  of  the  chain  of  Movmt  Cnemis.  On  the  east 
was  Mount  Ptous,  extending  to  the  Euripus,  a  narrow  strait  that  divides 
the  island  of  Euboe'a  from  the  mainland.  The  climate  was  cloudy,  and 
the  soil  marshy,  as  might  be  conjectured  from  the  position  of  the  coun- 
try ;  but  it  was  a  fertile  and  well-watered  district,  and  the  most  densely 
populated  in  Greece. 

Phocis,  a  district  of  moderate  size  and  unequal  shape,  extended  from 
the  mountain  chains  of  (E'ta  and  Cnemis,  southward  to  the  Corinthian 
gulf.  It  contained  several  important  mountain-passes  between  north- 
em  and  southern  Greece,  the  chief  of  which,  near  the  capital  city 
Elateia,  was  early  occupied  by  Phihp  in  his  second  invasion  of  Hel'las. 
Mounts  Hel'icon  and  Parnas'sus,  and  the  fountains  of  Aganippe  and 
Hippocrene,  are  names  familiar  to  every  reader  of  poetry ;  and  these, 
with  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Del'phi,  render  the  soil  of  Phocis  sacred. 
Del'phi  ( Castri)  was  situated  on  the  south  side  of  Mount  Pamas'sus, 
overshadowed  by  its  double  peak ;  and  above  the  city  was  the  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Apol'lo.  Here,  under  the  patronage  of  the  god,  were 
collected  all  the  masterpieces  of  Grecian  art  in  countless  abundance, 
together  with  costly  offerings  from  nations,  cities,  and  kings.  Here  the 
Amphictyonic  council  promulgated  the  first  maxims  of  the  law  of  na- 
tions ;  here  the  Pjthian  g^ames,  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  Olyrapia. 


GRECIAN  STATES.  83 

exercised  the  Grecian  youth  in  athletic  contests  ;  while  the  poets,  as 
eeinbled  round  the  Castalian  fountain,  chanted  their  rival  odes  in  noble 
emulation. 

East  Locris  extends  along  the  Euripus :  it  was  inhabited  by  two 
tribes,  the  Opun'tii  and  Epicnemid'ii,  deriving  their  names  from  O'pus 
and  Mount  Cncmis.  The  most  remarkable  place  in  the  province  is  the 
pass  of  Therniop'ylffi,  so  memorable  for  the  gallanv  stand  made  there  by 
Leon'idas  against  the  Persian  myriads. 

Wt'stern  Locris,  separated  by  Phocis  from  the  eastern  province, 
joined  the  bay  of  Cor'inth ;  its  inhabitants  were  called  Ozolae. 

The  mountainous  district  of  Doris,  though  a  small  territory,  was 
the  parent  of  many  powerful  states.  The  province  was  enclosed  be- 
tween the  southern  ridge  of  ffi'ta  and  the  northern  extremity  of  Mount 
Parnas'sus. 

^lolia  extended  from  Mount  CE'ta  to  the  Ionian  sea.  Having  the 
Locrian  territory  on  the  east,  and  the  river  Acheloiis  on  the  west. 

Acarnania,  the  most  western  comitry  of  Hel'las,  lay  wcfet  of  the 
river  Acheloiis,  from  which  it  extended  to  the  Ambracian  gulf.  It  was 
very  thickly  covered  with  wood ;  and  the  inhabitants  remained  barba- 
rians after  other  branches  of  the  Hel'lenic  race  had  become  the  in- 
structors of  the  world. 

Section  II. — Geogra^Jiical  Outline  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

Southern  Greece,  anciently  called  the  A'pian  land,  was  named 
the  Peloponnesus  in  honor  of  Pelops,  who  is  said  to  have  introduced 
the  arts  of  peace  into  that  peninsula  from  Asia  Minor.  It  consists  of 
a  mountainous  range  in  the  centre,  w^hence  hills  branch  out  in  various 
directions,  several  of  which  extend  to  the  sea.  Its  modern  name,  the 
Morea,  is  derived  from  its  resemblance  to  a  mulberry  leaf,  which  that 
word  signifies.  It  was  divided  into  eight  countries,  1,  Arcadia, 
2,  Laconia  ;  3,  Messenia;  4,  E'lis  ;  5,  Ar'golis  ;  6,  Achaia ;  7,  Sicyonia; 
and  8,  the  Corinthian  territory. 

Arcadia,  so  renowned  in  poetical  traditions,  occupied  the  central 
mountainous  district  of  the  Peloponnesus,  nowhere  bordering  on  the 
sea  It  resembles  Sw''':zerland  in  appearance  ;  and  this  similarity  may 
be  ex'ended  to  the  character  of  the  inhabitants,  both  being  remarkable 
for  their  love  of  freedom  and  their  love  of  money.  Arcadia  is  sup- 
posed by  many  writers  to  have  been  the  cradle  of  the  Pelasgic  race ; 
but  though  this  is  doubtful,  it  certainly  was  retained  by  that  people  long 
after  the  Hel'lenes  had  occupied  every  other  part  of  Greece. 

Laconia  occupied  the  southeastern  division  of  the  Peloponnesus  :  it 
was  rugged  and  mountainous,  but  was  nevertheless  so  densely  inhabited, 
that  it  is  said  to  have  contained  nearly  a  hundred  towns  and  villages. 
The  chief  city,  Spar'ta,  on  the  river  Eurotas,  remained  for  many  ages 
without  walls  or  gates,  its  defence  being  intrusted  to  the  valor  of  its 
citizens  ;  but  fortifications  were  erected  when  it  fell  under  the  sway  of 
despotic  rulers. 

Messenia  lay  to  the  west  of  Laconia,  and  was  more  level  and  fruit- 
ful than  that  province.  Messe'ne  [Mauromati),  the  capital,  was  a 
8trongly-'"<)rtified  towi ;  and  when  the  country  was  subjugated  by  Spar« 


84  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ta,  its  citizeiis  escaping  to  Sicily  gave  the  name  of  their  old  metropolij 
to  the  principal  town  of  the  colony  they  formed,  which  it  still  retains 
with  very  slight  alteration. 

Ar'golis  was  a  foreland  on  the  south  side  of  the  Saronic  gulf,  op- 
posite At^tica,  and  not  unlike  it  in  shape,  extending  southward  from 
Arcadia  fifty-four  miles  into  the  vEgean  sea,  and  terminating  in  the 
Scyllsean  promontory.  The  chief  chief  city  was  Argos,  on  the  river  In'- 
achus,  a  stream  that  had  disappeared  even  in  ancient  times.  During 
the  reio-n  of  Perseus  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to  Mycenae, 
the  celebrated  city  of  Agamem'non  ;  but  «!Oon  after  the  Trojan  war  it  was 
besieged  by  the  Argives,  and  levelled  to  the  ground. 

E'lis,  in  the  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  was  the  holy  land  of  Greece. 
It  was  safe  from  the  din  of  arms  ;  and  when  bands  of  warriors  traversed 
the  sacred  soil,  they  laid  aside  their  weapons.  It  was  subdivided  into 
three  districts  :  the  northern,  named  E'lis  Proper,  from  the  chief  city 
of  the  province.  The  central  district,  Pisatis,  was  named  from  the  city 
of  Pisa,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  the  Olympic  games  were  cele- 
brated every  four  years. 

The  maritime  district  occupying  the  northwestern  portion  of  the 
Peloponnesus  was  originally  called  vEgi'lus,  or  vEgialeia,  either  from 
some  hero,  or  from  its  situation  on  the  coast.  Its  inhabitants  were 
afterward  blended  with  a  colony  of  lonians  from  Africa,  when  it  took 
the  name  of  Ionia;  but  these  being  subsequently  expelled  by  the 
Achaeans,  it  received  and  retained  the  denomination  of  Achaia,  by 
which  it  is  best  known  in  history.  It  was  a  narrow  strip  of  country, 
watered  by  a  multitude  of  mountain-streams,  which  descended  from  the 
lofty  Arcadian  ridges  ;  but  it  was  not  eminent  either  for  fertility  or  pop- 
ulation. The  inhabitants  were  a  peaceful,  industrious  people,  aspiring 
to  neither  eminence  in  war  nor  literature,  but  attached  to  liberty,  and 
governed  by  wise  laws. 

The  territory  of  Sicyonia,  frequently  regarded  as  a  part  of  Achaia 
was  remarkable  only  for  the  city  of  Sic'yon,  the  most  ancient  in  Greece 
havinf  been  founded  more  than  two  thousand  years  before  the  Chris  • 
tian  era. 

The  Peloponnesus  was  connected  with  Hel'las  by  the  Corinthian 
isthmus,  having  the  Saronic  gulf  on  the  eastern  side,  and  the  Corinth- 
ian on  the  western.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  join  these  seas  by 
a  canal ;  but  the  nature  of  the  ground  to  be  cut  through  presented  insu- 
perable difficulties;  and  hence  "to  cut  the  Corinthian  isthmus"  was  a 
proverbial  expression  for  aiming  at  impossibilities.  On  this  narrow 
pass  the  Isthmian  games  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  Neptune,  near  the 
national  temple  of  *hat  deity,  which  stood  in  the  midst  of  a  grove  of 
fir-trees.  Here  aLo  a  stand  has  frequently  been  made  in  defence  of 
the  liberties  of  Greece ;  the  narrowness  of  the  isthmus  easily  admit- 
ting of  fortification.  At  the  south  of  the  isthmus  stood  the  wealthy  city 
of  Corinth,  anciently  called  Ephy're,  more  than  four  miles  in  extent :  it 
was  erected  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  hill,  called  the  Ac'ro-Corin'thus,  on 
which  the  citadel  was  built.  This  was  the  strongest  fortress  in  Greece, 
and  perhaps  no  other  spot  in  the  world  afljorded  so  brilliant  a  prospect. 
The  Corinthian  territory  was  one  of  the  smallest  ir.  Greece  ;  but  com* 
merce,  net  dominion,  secured  the  strength  of  Corinth,  and  trade  render 


GRECIAN  STATES.  83 

ed  it  rich  and  po^v^erful ;  like  Venice,  whose  prosperity  was  xi  fver 
greater  than  when  the  republic  possessed  not  a  single  square  mile  on 
the  continent. 

Section  III. —  The  Grecian  Islands  in  the  JEgean  and  Mediterranean  Seas. 

The  Thracian  islands  occupy  the  north  of  the  ^gean  sea  :  the  prin 
cipal  were,  Thasos,  Sam'othrace,  and  Im'brus. 

Opposite  to  Im'brus,  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  at  the  entrance  of  Helles- 
pont, was  the  island  of  Ten'edos,  remarkable  for  a  temple  dedicated  tc 
Apollo,  under  the  name  of  Smin'theus. 

Southwest  of  Ten'edos  was  Lem'nos  (Sfalime/ie),  dedicated  to  He- 
phajs'tus  or  Vulcan,  because  the  poets  asserted  that  Vulcan,  when  flung 
from  heaven  by  Jupiter,  had  fallen  in  this  island.  South  of  these  were 
Sciathus  (Sciatica).  Scop'elos  {Scopelo),  and  Scyros  (Shiro),  where 
Achilles  was  concealed  by  Thetis. 

South  of  Ten'edos,  and  opposite  the  city  of  Eph'esus,  on  Jie  Asiatic 
coast,  was  Lesbos  [Metelin).  Further  to  the  south  was  Chios  {Scio\ 
whose  wines  were  deemed  the  best  in  the  ancient  world.  It  also  con- 
tained quaries  of  beautiful  marble. 

The  largest  island  in  the  vEgean  was  Eubce'a  [Egripo),  separated  from 
the  Bosotian  coast  by  a  narrow  strait  called  the  Euripus,  which  is  now 
choked  up. 

In  the  Saronic  gulf  were  the  islands  of  Sal'amis  and  ^Egina. 

Southeast  of  Euboe'a  were  the  Cyc'lades,  a  cluster  of  islands  de- 
riving their  name  from  their  nearly  forming  a  circle  round  the  island 
of  Delos.  Orty'gia,  or  Delos,  is  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  birth- 
place of  Apol'lo  and  Dian'a. 

The  other  remarkable  islands  in  this  group  were  An'dros ;  Ceos ; 
Paros,  celebrated  for  its  white  marble  ;  Melos  ;  Nax'os,  sacred  to  Bac'- 
chus  ;  and  I'os,  said  to  have  been  the  burial-place  of  Homer. 

East  of  the  Cyc'lades,  and  close  along  the  Asiatic  coast,  was  another 
cluster  of  islands  called  the  Spor'ades,  from  their  being  irregularly 
scattered  over  the  sea.  The  chief  of  these  were,  Samos,  sacred  to 
Juno,  and  thf  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Pythag'oras ;  Pat'mos, 
where  St.  John  wrote  the  Revelations  ;  Cos,  the  native  country  of  the 
celebrated  physician  Hippocrates  ;  Car'pathus  (Scarpanfo),  which  gave 
name  to  the  Carpathian  sea  ;  and  Rhodes. 

Crete  (Candia),  the  largest  of  the  Grecian  islands  except  Eubcea, 
lies  at  the  entrance  of  the  iEgean.  In  ancient  times  it  was  celebrated 
for  its  hundred  cities.  Northeast  of  Crete  is  Cy'prus,  the  favorite 
island  of  Venus,  whose  Paphian  bower  is  not  yet  forgotten  in  song 
and  whose  loveliness  has  been  celebrated  by  poets  of  every  age  and 
nation. 

Section  IV. —  The  Ionian  Islands. 

Corcy'ra,  formerly  called  Drepant^  (Corfu),  is  celebrated  by  Ho. 
met  under  the  name  of  Phseacia,  for  its  amazing  riches  and  fertility 
It  was  opposite  that  part  of  Epirus  named  Thesprotia,  from  which  il 
WHS  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  called  the  Corcyrean. 


86  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Leucddia  (^Sanla  Maura),  was  originally  a  peninsula,  but  lie  isthmus 
that  joined  it  to  tlie  mainland  was  cut  through  to  facilitate  navigation. 

The  Ecliin'ades  (Curzolari)  were  a  small  cluster  of  islands  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Acheloiis,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  was  Du 
lichium,  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Ulys'ses.     Near  it  was  the  little  island 
of  Ith'aca  [Thealu),  immortalized  by  Homer. 

Cephalonia,  anciently  called  Scheria,  was  the  largest  of  the  western 
Grecian  islands,  and  the  least  noted  in  history. 

South  of  this  was  Zacyn'thus  [Zante),  with  a  capital  of  the  same 
name,  celebrated  for  its  fertile  meads,  its  luxuriant  woods,  audits  abun- 
dant fountains  of  bitumen. 

West  of  the  Peloponnesus  are  the  Stroph'ides  [Strivoli),  more  an- 
ciently called  Plotie,  because  they  were  supposed  to  have  been  floating 
islands ;  and  south  of  them  is  the  island  of  Sphacteria  [Sphagia), 
which  guards  the  entrance  of  Py'los  [Navarino). 

South  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  the  island  of  Cyth'erea  (Cerigo),  sa- 
cred to  Venus,  and  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its  fertility  and 
beauty. 

Section  V. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Greece. 

It  is  useless  to  investigate  the  social  condition  of  the  Greeks  in 
what  are  called  the  heroic  ages,  because  we  have  no  credible  account 
of  that  period.  But  when  the  certain  history  of  Greece  commences, 
we  find  the  country  divided  between  two  races,  the  lonian  and  the  Do- 
rian, distinguished  from  each  other  by  striking  characteristics,  which 
were  never  wholly  obliterated.  We  know,  also,  that  two  other  races, 
the  iEolian  and  Achaean,  existed ;  but  they  seem  to  have  become  in  a 
great  degree  identified  with  one  or  other  of  the  two  former. 

The  lonians  were  remarkable  for  their  democratic  spirit,  and  conse- 
quent hostility  to  hereditary  privileges.  They  were  vivacious,  prone  to 
excitement,  easily  induced  to  make  important  changes  in  their  institu- 
tions, and  proud  of  their  country  and  themselves.  Their  love  of  refined 
enjoyments  made  them  diligent  cultivators  of  the  fine  arts,  but  without 
being  destitut  ^  of  martial  vigor.  They  were  favorably  disposed  tow- 
ard commerce  ,  but,  like  too  many  other  free  states,  they  encumbered 
it  with  short-sighted  restrictions,  and  they  were  cruel  masters  to  their 
colonial  dependancies. 

The  Dorian  race,  on  the  contrary,  was  remarkable  for  the  seveie 
simplicity  of  its  manners,  and  its  strict  adherence  to  ancient  usages. 
It  preferred  an  aristocratic  form  of  government,  and  required  age  as 
a  qualification  for  magistracy,  because  the  old  are  usually  opposed  to 
innovation.  They  were  ambitious  of  supremacy,  and  the  chief  object 
of  their  institutions  was  to  maintain  the  warlike  and  almost  savage  spirit 
of  the  nation.  Slavery  in  its  worst  form  prevailed  in  every  Dorian 
state ;  and  the  slaves  were  almost  deprived  of  hope — for  the  Dorian 
legislation  was  directed  chiefly  to  fix  every  man  in  his  hereditary  con- 
dition. Commerce  was  discouraged  on  account  of  its  tendency  to 
change  the  ranks  of  society,  and  the  fine  arts  all  but  prohibited,  be- 
cause they  were  supposed  to  lead  to  effemmacy. 

The  differences  between  these  two  races  is  the  chief  characteristic 


GRECIAN  STATES. 


87 


of  Grecian  politics  ;  it  runs,  indeed,  through  the  entire  histor\  and 
was  the  principal  cause  of  the  deep-rooted  hatred  between  Athent  and 
Sparta.  Next  to  this,  the  most  marked  feature  in  the  political  a»()ect 
of  Greece  is,  that  it  contained  as  many  free  states  as  cities.  At  lica, 
Meg'aris,  and  Laconia,  were  civic  rather  than  territorial  states  but 
there  are  few  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  country  that  were  u  ated 
under  a  single  government.  The  cities  of  A'chaia,  Ariddia,  and 
Boeotia,  were  independent  of  each  other,  though  the  Achaean  ities 
were  united  by  a  federative  league  ;  and  Thebes  generally  exerci  .ed  a 
precarious  dominion  over  the  other  cities  of  Bceotia.  The  suprt.nacy 
of  the  principal  state  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Hegem'omj  ;  it  int  .uded 
the  right  of  determining  the  foreign  relations  of  the  inferior  state  <,  and 
binding  them  to  all  wars  in  which  the  capital  engaged,  and  all  t>  eaties 
of  peace  which  it  concluded;  but  it  did  not  allow  of  any  intert^rence 
in  the  internal  administration  of  each  government.  This  parcelling 
out  of  a  small  country,  added  to  the  frequent  revolutions,  facilitated 
by  the  narrow  limits  of  each  state,  necessarily  led  to  a  more  rapid  de- 
velopment of  political  science  in  Greece  than  in  any  other  country. 

Divided  as  the  Greeks  were,  there  were  many  circumstances  that 
united  the  whole  Hellenic  race  by  a  common  bond  of  nationality.  Of 
these  the  chief  was  unity  of  religion,  connected  with  which  were  the 
national  festivals  and  games,  at  which  all  the  Hellenes,  and  none  others, 
were  allowed  to  take  a  share.  If,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  the 
Greeks  derived  the  elements  of  their  religion  from  Asia  or  Egypt,  they 
soon  made  it  so  peculiarly  their  own,  that  it  retained  no  features  of  its 
original  source.  All  Asiatic  deities  are  more  or  less  of  an  elementary 
character;  that  is,  they  symbolize  some  natural  object,  such  as  the 
sun,  the  earth,  an  important  river ;  or  some  power  of  nature,  such  as 
the  creative,  the  preserving,  and  the  destroying  power.  In  many  in- 
stances both  were  combined,  and  the  visible  object  was  associated  with 
the  latent  power.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gods  of  Greece  were  xiuman 
personages,  possessing  the  forms  and  the  attributes  of  men,  though  in  a 
highly  exalted  degree.  The  paganism  of  Asia  was  consequently  a  re- 
ligion of  fear ;  for  it  was  impossible  to  conceive  deities  of  monstrous 
forms  sympathizing  with  man  :  hence,  also,  the  priesthood  formed  a  pe- 
culiar caste  ;^  for  the  mystery  which  veiled  the  god  was  necessarily 
extended  to  the  mode  in  which  he  should  be  worshipped. 

Instead  of  this  gloomy  system,  the  Greeks  had  a  religion  of  love; 
they  regarded  their  gods  as  a  kind  of  personal  friends,  and  hence  their 
worship  was  cheerful  and  joyous.  The  priesthood  was  open  to  all ; 
the  office  was  commonly  filled  for  a  limited  time  only,  and  was  not 
deemed  inconsistent  with  other  occupations.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Grecian  religion  received  its  peculiar  form  from  the  beautiful  tic- 
tions  of  the  poets,  especially  Homer  and  'Hesiod  ;  for  in  all  its  features 
It  is  essentially  poetical.  We  need  scarcely  dwell  on  the  beneficial 
effects  produced  by  this  system  on  the  fine  arts,  or  its  facilitating  the 
progress  of  knowledge,  by  separating  religion  from  philosophy. 

The  oracles  of  Dodona  and  Del'phi,  the  temples  l>f  Olym'pia  and 
Delos,  were  national ;  they  belonged  to  the  whole  Hellenic  race.  The 
respor  ses  of  the  o  -acles  were  more  reverenced  by  the  Dorian  than  the 
Ionian  race,  for  the  latter  early  emancipated  itself  from  the  trammels 


88  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

01  supeistition.  The  worship  in  all  was  voluntary,  and  the  large  gifla 
tjinulously  sent  to  fcheni  were  the  spontaneous  offers  of  patriotic  affection. 
Del'phi  was  under  the  government  of  the  Amphictyon'ic  council ;  but 
this  body  did  not  limit  its  attention  to  the  government  of  ihe  temple  : 
by  its  influence  over  the  oracle,  it  acquired  no  small  share  in  the  af- 
fairs of  different  states ;  and  it  superintended  the  administration  of  the 
law  of  nations,  even  when  the  states  represented  in  it  were  engaged 
in  war. 

The  great  public  games  were  the  Olympian,  the  Pythian,  the  Ne- 
mean,  and  the  Isthmian.  Foreigners  might  be  spectators  at  these 
games,  but  Hellenes  alone  could  contend  for  the  prize.  This  right  be- 
longed to  the  colonies  as  well  as  to  the  states  in  the  mother-country ; 
and,  as  it  was  deemed  a  privilege  of  the  highest  value,  it  preserved  the 
unity  even  of  the  most  distant  branches  of  the  Hellenic  race. 

All  the  constitutions  of  the  Grecian  states  were  republican  ;  tT?t  they 
varied  so  much  in  the  different  cities,  that  hardly  any  two  were  alike. 
In  general,  however,  it  may  be  stated,  that  in  all  the  most  severe  pub- 
lic and  nrivate  labors  were  intrusted  to  slaves ;  and  in  many,  as 
Laconia,  agriculture  was  managed  by  them  exclusively.  This  degraded 
manufacturing  industry,  and  led  to  an  undue  depression  not  only  of  ar- 
tisans and  retailers,  but  even  of  master  manufacturers.  Foreign  mer- 
chants were  treated  with  unwise  jealousy,  and  could  never  obtain  the 
privileges  of  citizens.  The  right  of  coinage  was  reserved  to  the  state  ; 
but  it  was  not  until  a  very  late  period  that  the  Greeks  began  to  pay 
attention  to  finance.  Little  or  no  taxation  was  necessary  while  the 
citizens  served  as  voluntary  soldiers ;  and  the  magistrates  were  re- 
warded with  honor,  not  money.  But  when  mercenary  armies  were 
employed,  and  ambassadors  sent  into  distant  lands,  when  the  impor- 
tance of  a  navy  induced  cities  to  outbid  each  other  in  the  pay  of  their 
sailors,  heavy  taxes  became  necessary,  and  these  brought  many  of  the 
cities  into  great  pecuniary  embarrassment. 

Another  source  of  expense  was  the  provision  for  public  festivals  and 
theatrical  shows  ;  to  which  was  added,  in  Athens  and  other  places,  the 
payment  of  the  dicasts,  or  persons  analogous  to  our  jurymen  ;  though,  in- 
stead of  their  number  being  limited  to  twelve,  they  frequently  amounted  tc 
several  hundreds,  and  had  no  presiding  judges.  This  was  doubly  injuri  - 
ous  ;  the  m  ;ltitude  of  the  dicasts  not  only  entailed  a  heavy  expense 
upon  the  state,  but  the  sum  paid  being  small,  few  save  those  of  the 
lower  classes  attended,  whose  decisions  were  not  unfrequently  guided 
by  prejudice  and  passion,  instead  of  law  and  justice. 

The  poetical  nature  of  its  religion,  and  the  free  constitution  of  its 
states,  not  only  rendered  Greece  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  progress  of 
literature,  philosophy,  and  the  fine  arts,  but  gave  these,  in  turn,  a  de- 
cided influence  on  the  government.  The  tragic  and  lyric  poets  pro- 
duced their  pieces  in  honor  of  the  gods ;  the  comic  poets  at  Athens 
discussed  public  affairs  on  the  stage  with  a  freedom,  or  rather  licen- 
tiousness, which  the  wildest  excesses  of  the  modern  press  have  never 
equalled  ;  and  the  influence  of  the  orators  at  Athens  rendered  them  the 
leaders  of  the  state. 

The  seeds  of  dissolution  were  thickly  sown  in  the  social  system  of 
ihe  Greeks      The  rivalry  between  the  Dorian  and  Ionian  races ;  the 


GRECIAN  STATES. 


89 


turbulence  and  sedition  natural  to  small  republics ;  and  the  gradual  de- 
cline of  religion,  followed  by  a  consequent  corruption  of  morals — 
rendered  the  duration  of  the  constitution  as  brief  as  it  was  glorious. 

Section  Yl.—  The  (radllional  History  of  Greece  from  the  earliest  Ages  to  tin 
Commencement  of  the  Trojan  War. 

FROM   AN    UNKNOWN    PERIOD   TO   ABOUT    1200   B.  C. 

Sx\CRED  history,  confirmed  by  uniform  tradition,  informs  us  ihat 
Thraco,  Macedon,  and  Greece,  were  peopled  at  an  earlier  period  than 
the  other  portions  of  the  western  world.  The  first  inhabitants  were 
tribes  of  hunters  and  shejjherds,  whose  'earliest  approaches  to  civiliza- 
tion were  associations  for  mutual  defence  against  robber-tribes,  and  the 
Phoenician  corsairs  that  swept  the  coast  of  the  iEgean  to  kidnap  slaves. 
The  Pelas'gi  were  the  first  tribe  that  acquired  supremacy  in  Greece : 
they  were  probably  of  Asiatic  origin  ;  and  the  fiibi  place  in  which  they 
appear  to  have  made  a  permanent  settlement  was  the  Peloponnesus, 
where  they  erected  Sic'yon  (*b.  c.  2000),  and  Argos  (*b.  c.  1800). 
In'achus  was  regarded  by  the  Pelas'gi  as  their  founder :  he  was  prob- 
ably contemporary  with  Abraham ;  but  nothing  certain  is  known  of  his 
history. 

To  the  Pelas'gi  are  attributed  the  remains  of  those  most  ancient 
monuments  generally  called  Cyclopian.  They  are  usually  composed 
of  enormous  rude  masses  piled  upon  one  another,  with  small  stones 
fitted  in  between  the  intervals  to  complete  the  work.  From  the  Pel- 
oponnesus the  Pelas'gi  extended  themselves  northward  to  Attica, 
Boeotia,  and  Thessaly,  which  they  are  said  to  have  entered  under  three 
leaders,  Acha^'us,  Phthius,  and  Pelas'gus ;  though  by  these  names  we 
ought  probably  to  understand  separate  tribes  rather  than  individuals. 
Here  they  learned  to  apply  themselves  to  agriculture,  and  continued  to 
flourish  for  nearly  two  centuries.     (From  *b.  c.  1700  to  *b.  c.  1500.) 

The  Hellenes,  a  more  mild  and  humane  race,  first  appeared  on 
Mount  Parnas'sus,  in  Phocis,  under  Deucalion,  whom  they  venerated 
as  their  founder  (*b.  c.  1433).  Being  driven  thence  by  a  flood,  they 
migrated  into  Thessaly,  and  expelled  the  Pelas'gi  from  that  territory. 
From  this  time  forward  the  Hellenes  rapidly  increased,  and  extended 
their  dominion  over  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  dispossessing  the  more 
ancient  race,  which  only  retained  the  mountainous  parts  of  Arcadia  and 
the  land  of  Dodona.  Numbers  of  the  Pelas'gi  emigrated  to  Italy, 
Crete,  and  some  o^  the  other  islands. 

The  1  lellenic  race  was  subdivided  into  four  great  branches,  the 
iEolians,  lonians,  Dorians,  and  Acha^ans,  which,  in  the  historic  age  of 
Greece,  were  characterized  by  many  strong  and  marked  peculiarities 
of  dialect,  customs,  and  political  government ;  we  may  perhaps  add, 
religious,  or  at  least,  heroic  traditions,  only  tnat  these  appear  to  be  con- 
nected rather  with  the  localities  in  which  they  settled  than  with  the 
stock  from  which  they  sprung.  There  were  many  smaller  ramifications 
of  the  Hellenic  race  ;  but  all  united  themselves  to  one  or  other  of  liie 
four  great  tribes,  whose  names  are  derived  from  Deucalion's  immediate 
posterity.  It  is  the  common  attribute  of  ancient  traditions  to  describe 
the  achievements  of  a  tribe  or  army  as  personal  exploits  of  the  lea'''«*r  \ 


90  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

and  hence  -we  find  the  history  of  the  tribes  and  .heir  migrations  ntcr. 
woven  with  the  personal  history  of  Deucalion's  descendants. 

Hel'len,  the  son  of  Deucalion,  gave  his  name  to  the  whole  Hellenic 
race :  he  had  three  sons,  iEolus,  Dorus,  and  Xiithus  ;  of  whom  the 
first  settled  in  the  district  of  Thessaly  called  Phthiotis,  and  became 
the  founder  of  the  ^Eolian  tribe  ;  the  second  settled  in  Estieeotis,  and 
there  established  the  Dorian  tribe  ;  the  third,  expelled  by  his  brethren, 
migrated  to  Athens,  where  he  manied  Creusa,  the  daughter  of  king 
Erec'theus,  by  Avhom  he  had  two  sons,  I'on  and  Achgeus.  After  the 
death  of  Erec'theus,  Xiithus  was  forced  to  remove  to  iEgialeia  (the 
province  of  the  Peloponnesus  al'terward  called  Achaia),  where  he  died. 
His  son  I'on,  the  founder  of  the  Ionian  race,  became  general  of  the 
Athenian  forces,  and  lord  of  iEgialeia,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Ionia.  Achffius,  the  founder  of  the  Achaean  race,  obtained  possession 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  especially  Argolis  and  Laconia. 

The  iEolian  tribe  spread  itself  over  western  Greece,  Acarnania, 
aEtolia,  Phocis,  Locris,  E'lis  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  western 
islands.  The  Dorians,  driven  from  Estiseotis  by  the  Perrhsebians, 
spread  themselves  over  Macedonia  and  Crete ;  a  part  of  them  subse- 
quently returning,  crossed  Mount  CE'ta,  and  settled  in  Doris  on  the 
Doric  Tetrap'olis,  where  they  remained  until  they  migrated  into  the 
Peloponnesus  under  the  guidance  of  the  Heracleidae  ;  an  important  rev- 
olution, which  will  soon  engage  our  attention. 

The  lonians  inhabited  At'tica  and  ^Egialeia  ;  but  they  were  expelled 
from  the  latter  by  the  Acheeans  at  the  time  of  the  great  Dorian  migra- 
tion, and  the  name  of  the  country  changed  to  Achaia.  The  Achaeana 
retained  Argolis  and  Laconia  until  they  were  expelled  by  the  Dorians, 
when,  as  we  have  just  said,  they  established  themselves  in  iEgialeia, 

From  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  several  colonies  from  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Phry'- 
gia,  settled  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  bringing  with  them  the  im- 
provements in  the  arts  and  sciences  that  had  been  made  in  their  re- 
spective countries,  and  thus  greatly  advancing  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion in  Greece.     The  chief  of  these  colonies  were  : — 

An  Egyptian  colony  was  led  from  Sais  in  the  Del'ta  to  At^tica  by 
Cecrops  (*b.  c.  1550) :  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  institution  of 
marriage  and  the  first  elements  of  civilization. 

A  second  colony,  from  Lower  Egypt,  was  led  by  Dan'aus,who  fled 
from  a  brother's  enmity,  and  settled  in  Ar'gos  (*b.  c.  1500).  The  fa- 
ble of  his  fifty  daughters  is  Avell  known ;  but  its  historical  foundation 
is  altogether  uncertain. 

A  Phoenician  colony,  under  Cad'mus,  settled  in  Boeotia,  and  founded 
Thebes,  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  Cecrops  established  himself  al 
At'tica.     He  was  the  first  who  introduced  the  use  of  letters  into  Greece 

Pelops  led  a  colony  from  Phry'gia,  the  northwestern  kingdom  of 
Asia  Minor,  into  the  Peloponnesus  (*b.  c.  1400) :  he  did  not  acquire 
so  large  a  kingdom  as  the  settlers  mentioned  before  ;  but  his  descend- 
ants, by  intermarriages  with  the  royal  families  of  Ar'gos  and  Lacedae'- 
mon,  acquired  such  paramount  influence,  that  they  became  supreme 
»ver  the  peninsula,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  their  great  ancestor. 

Several  circumstances,  however,  impeded  the  progress  of  civilization. 
The  coasts  of  Greece  were  temptingly  exposed  to   the  Phoenicians, 


GRECIAN  STATES.  91 

Canans,  and  islanders  of  the  ^Egeaii,  who  at  first  made  the  art  of  nav. 
igation  subservient  to  piracy  rather  than  commerce  ;  and  the  Thracians, 
the  Amazons,  and  other  barbarous  tribes  from  the  north,  made  frequent 
incursions  into  the  exposed  Hellenic  provinces.  To  resist  these  in- 
cursions the  celebrated  Amphictyonic  league  was  founded  by  Amphic- 
tyon,  a  descendant  of  Deucalion :  the  federation  was  constantly  re- 
ceivmg  fresh  accessions,  until  it  included  the  greater  part  of  the  Gre- 
cian states  ;  deputies  from  which  met  alternately  at  Del'phi  and  Ther- 
mop'ylffi. 

Like  Europe  in  the  middle  ages,  Greece  at  this  period  was  infested 
by  bands  of  robbers,  who  deemed  plunder  an  honorable  profession,  and 
some  of  whom  exercised  the  most  atrocious  cruelties  on  the  hapless 
passengers.  The  adventurers  who  acquired  most  fame  by  their  ex- 
ertions in  destroying  the  freebooters  were  Perseus,  Her'cules,  Bellei-^- 
ophon,  Theseus,  and  the  Dioskouroi  Cas'tor,  and  Pol'lux,  whose  ro- 
mantic histories  form  a  very  large  portion  of  Grecian  mythology. 

The  most  celebrated  events  in  this  period  of  uncertain  history  are, 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  the  two  Theban  wars,  the  siege  of  Troy, 
the  return  of  the  HeracleklBe,  and  the  migration  of  the  Ionian  and 
iEolian  colonies  to  Asia  Minor.  It  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  real 
nature  and  objects  of  the  Argonautic  expedition  :  it  appears  certain 
that  in  the  thirteenth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  a  Thessalian 
prince,  named  Jason,  collected  the  young  chivalry  of  Greece,  and  sailed 
on  an  expedition,  partly  commercial  and  partly  piratical,  in  a  ship 
named  Argo,  to  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine  sea.  The  Argonauts 
fought,  conquered,  and  plundered  ;  they  planted  a  colony  in  Corchis, 
and  their  chief  brought  a  princess  of  that  country  home  to  Thessaly. 
But  though  impenetrable  darkness  veils  the  nature  of  this  expedition, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  results.  From  the  era  of  the  Argonauts, 
we  may  discover  among  the  Greeks  not  only  a  more  daring  and  more 
enlarged  spirit  of  enterprise,  but  a  more  decisive  and  rapid  progress 
toward  civilization  and  humanity. 

The  worship  of  Diony'sus  or  Bac'chus  was  established  at  Thebes 
by  Cad'mus  ;  and  the  Phoenician  mythology  is  full  of  the  miseries  and 
crimes  that  debased  and  ruined  the  family  of  Cad'mus.  ffi'dipus,  the 
most  remarkable  of  his  descendants,  having  been  remcrsd  from  the 
throne  for  an  involuntary  series  of  crimes,  his  sons,  Ete'ocles  and 
Polynices,  seized  the  kingdom,  and  agreed  to  reign  in  turn.  Ete'ocles 
refused  to  perform  the  agreement ;  and  Polynices  being  joined  by  six 
of  the  most  eminent  generals  in  Greece,  commenced  the  memorable 
war  of  "  the  Seven  against  Thebes"  (*b.  c.  1225).  The  result  was  fa- 
tal to  the  allies  ;  Ete'ocles  and  Polynices  fell  by  mutual  wounds  ;  and 
Creon,  who  succeeded  to  the  Theban  throne,  routed  the  confederate 
forces,  five  of  whose  leaders  were  left  dead  on  the  field.  After  the  lapse 
of  about  ten  years,  the  sons  of  the  allied  princes,  called  the  Epig'oni, 
marched  against  Thebes  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  fathers  After  a 
sanguinary  conflict,  the  Thebans  were  routed  with  great  slaughter, 
their  leader  slain,  and  their  city  captured.  In  consequence  of  these 
wars  the  Thebans  were  long  odious  to  the  res'',  of  the  Greeks,  and  they  re- 
paid this  hatred  by  infidelity  to  the  Hellenic  cause  during  the  Persiaa 
war. 


92  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

"When  the  family  of  Pelops  became  powerful  in  southern  Greece,  they 
appear  to  have  attempted  to  retaliate  the  injuries  that  had  driA'en  their 
ancestors  into  exile.  In  one  of  their  plundering  expeditions  to  the 
Phrygian  coast,  a  youn^  prince  named  Podar'kes  was  carried  away  cap- 
tive, and  detained  until  a  large  ransom  had  been  paid  for  his  liberation. 
From  this  circumstance,  he  was  afterward  named  Priam,  or  "  the  pur- 
chased." At  a  subsequent  period,  Priam  having  become  king  of  Troy, 
sent  his  son  Paris,  or  Alexan'der,  as  an  ambassador  to  the  Peloponnesian 
princes,  probably  to  negotiate  a  peace.  He  seduced  HeFen,  the  beau- 
tiful wife  of  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  and  conveyed  her,  with  some 
valuable  treasures,  to  Troy.  The  injured  husband  applied,  to  his 
countrymen  for  redress.  A  large  army,  raised  by  the  confederate 
kings,  was  placed  under  the  command  of  Agamemnon,  the  brother'of 
Menelaus. 

Troy  was  at  this  time  the  capital  of  a  powerful  kingdom,  possessing 
"umerous  allies  and  subjects.  It  mustered,  according  to  Homer,  an 
army  of  fifty  thousand  men  ;  its  walls  could  defy  the  imperfect  machines 
then  used  in  sieges,  and  its  citadel  was  impregnable.  Against  this 
powerful  kingdom  the  Greek  princes  undertook  their  expedition,  with 
an  army  of  about  one  hundred  thousand  men,  conveyed  in  eleven  hun- 
dred and  eighty-six  ships.  These  vessels  were  of  very  rude  construc- 
tion, having  only  halfdecks,  and  stones  instead  of  anchors  ;  the  soldiers 
acted  as  rowers,  and  when  they  reached  their  destination  the  ships  were 
hauled  upon  land. 

The  war  was  protracted  ten  years,  during  which  several  battles  were 
fought  under  the  walls  of  Troy  ;  and  we  find  that  the  military  weapons 
used  v/ere  in  every  respect  similar  to  those  employed  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  city  was  finally  taken  by  stratagem,  and  razed  to  the 
ground  ;  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain  or  taken,  and  the  rest  were 
forced  to  become  exiles  in  distant  lands.  The  victors,  however,  suffer- 
ed nearly  as  much  as  the  vanquished.  During  the  protracted  absence 
of  the  chiefs,  usurpers  had  seized  many  of  their  thrones,  aided  by  faith- 
less wives  and  the  rising  ambition  of  young  men.  These  circumstances 
necessarily  led  to  fierce  wars  and  intestine  commotions,  whi:h  greatly 
retarded  the  progress  of  Grecian  civilization. 

Section  VII. — Grecian  History  from  the  Trojan  War  to  the  Estahlishmeni 

of  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Asia. 

FROM  *B.  c.  1183  TO  B.  c.  994. 

We  have  seen  how  the  posterity  of  Pelops,  by  various  means,  ob 
tained  possession  of  the  entire  Peloponnesus,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
more  ancient  dynasties.  Their  rivals  were  the  Perseidae,  who  claimed, 
through  their  ancestor  Per'seus,  the  honors  of  a  divine  descent,  and 
who  could  boast  of  having  in  their  family  such  heroes  as  Per'seus, 
Beller'ophon,  and  Her'cules.  From  the  last-named  hero  a  powerful 
branch  of  the  Perseid  family  received  the  name  of  the  Heracleidae  • 
they  were  persecuted  by  the  Pelop'id  sovereigns,  and  driven  into  exile. 
After  having  been  hospitably  received  by  the  Athenians,  they  retired  to 
the  mountainous  district  of  Doris,  and  became  masters  of  that  wild  and 


GRECIAN  STATES.  93 

barren  province  The  Dorian  mountains  were  ill-calcnlatetl  to  satisfy 
men  whose  ancestors  had  inherited  the  fertile  phxins  of  the  Peloponnesus. 
When  the  consequences  of  the  Trojan  war  filled  Greece  with  confusion, 
the  Heracleidae  were  encouraged  to  make  an  effort  to  regain  their 
ancient  rights  ;  twice  they  attempted  to  break  through  the  Corinthian 
isthmus,  but  were  each  time  repulsed  with  considerable  loss.  Warned 
by  these  misfortunes,  they  abandoned  the  design  of  entering  the 
Peloponnesus  by  land,  and  resolved  to  try  their  fortune  in  a  naval  ex- 
pedition. 

Their  rendezvous  was  Naupac'tus  {Lepanto),  on  the  Corinthian  gulf, 
where  they  were  jonied  by  a  body  of  ^tolians,  and  by  several  of  the 
Dorian  tribes.  By  secret  intrigues,  a  party  was  gained  in  Lacedee'- 
mon.  A  favorable  gale,  in  the  meantime,  wafted  their  armament 
to  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus.  Laconia  was  betrayed 
to  the  invaders  ;  Ar'golis,  Messenia,  E'lis,  and  Corinth,  submitted  to 
their  authority ;  the  mountainous  districts  of  Arcadia,  and  the  coast 
province,  iEgialeia  (afterward  Achaia),  were  the  only  parts  of  the  pen- 
insula that  remained  unsubdued.  TIkj  revolution  was  effected  with  lit 
tie  bloodshed  ;  but  not  without  groat  oppression  of  the  ancient  inhab 
itants,  many  of  whom  emigrated,  while  those  who  remained  were  re- 
duced to  slavf^ry. 

The  associated  victors  divided  the  conquered  provinces  among  them- 
selves by  lot.  Arislodennis,  who  obtained  Laconia,  happening  to  die, 
the  kingdom  was  secured  for  his  twin  children,  Eurys'thenes  and 
Procles,  and  from  that  time  forth  Sparta  was  governed  by  two  kino-s. 
The  commander  of  the  Pelop'id  forces  at  the  isthmus,  instead  of  attempt- 
ing to  recover  his  kindgom,  invaded  iEgialeia,  expelled  the  lonians, 
and  gave  that  province  the  name  of  Achaia,  which  it  ever  after  retained 
(b.  c.  1104).  Many  of  the  fugitives  sought  refuge  in  At'tica,  where  they 
were  hospitably  entertained  by  the  Athenians,  who  were  alarmed  by  the 
success  and  ambition  of  the  Dorians.  A  still  greater  number  passed 
over  into  Asia  Minor,  and  founded  the  colonies  of  Ionia,  iEolia,  =i.-ad 
Caria. 

The  jealousy  of  the  Athenians  was  soon  proved  to  be  derived  from 
reasonable  fears.  In  the  reign  of  Codrus  the  Dorians  passed  the  bound- 
aries of  At'tica,  and  seized  the  territory  of  Meg'ara,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Saronic  gulf.  A  cruel  war  ensued  ;  Codrus  in  vain  at- 
tempted to  drive  the  intruders  from  their  stronghold  :  at  length,  hearing 
that  a  superstitious  rumor  prevailed  among  them,  that  they  wotdd  be 
successful  as  long  as  they  refrained  from  injuring  the  Athenian  king, 
he  entered  their  camp  in  disguise,  provoked  a  quarrel  with  a  Dorian 
soldier,  and  suffered  himself  to  be  slain.  On  recognising  the  body,  the 
superstitious  Peloponnesians,  despairing  of  success,  abandoned  their 
hostilities  ;  and  the  Athenians,  out  of  respect  for  his  memory,  declared 
that  none  of  the  human  race  was  worthy  to  succeed  Codrus,  and  there- 
fore abolished  royalty  altogether  (b.  c.  1068). 

Two  of  thf»  Pelop'idae,  having  unsuccessfully  traversed  the  northern  part 
of  Greece  in  search  of  new  settlements,  finally  crossed  the  Hellespont 
eighty-eight  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy,  and  established  themselves 
along  the  coast  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Priam.  Their  colonies  grad- 
ually extended  from  the  peninsula  of  Cyzicus  on  the  Propontis  to  the 


94  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

mouth  of  the  river  Her'mus,  which  delightful  country,  together  with  the 
island  of  Les'bos,  received  the  name  of  iEolia.  The  younger  sons  of 
Codrus,  dissatisfied  with  the  abolition  of  royalty,  collected  a  numerous 
band  of  Athenians  and  Ionian  exiles,  with  which  they  crossed  the  sea, 
and  established  themselves  along  the  coast  from  the  river  Her'mus  to 
the  promontory  of  Posideion,  expelling  the  ancient  inhabitants.  The 
islands  of  Chios  and  Samos  were  subsequently  seized,  and  all  these 
countries  were  united  by  the  common  name  of  Ionia,  or,  as  it  was  some 
times  called,  the  Pan-Ionian  confederacy. 

The  renewal  of  hostilities  between  the  Athenians  and  Dorians  led  to 
♦he  establishment  of  a  third  series  of  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  (b.  c.  994). 
The  Dorians  having  been  driven  from  their  stronghold  in  Meg'ara,  were 
ashamed  to  return  to  the  Peloponnesus  ;  part  of  them  sailed  to  the  islands 
of  Crete  and  Rhodes,  already  peopled  by  Doric  tribes  ;  the  rest  settled 
in  the  peninsula  of  Caria,  to  which,  in  honor  of  their  mother-country, 
they  gave  the  name  of  Doris. 

At  a  later  period,  the  tide  of  emigration  turned  toward  the  west,  and 
colonies  were  established  in  Sicily,  and  on  the  coasts  of  southern  Italy. 
The  Greeks  seldom  made  settlements  in  the  interior  of  the  country ;  for 
most  of  their  colonies  were  designed  to  extend  commerce  rather  than 
conquests.  Most  of  these  colonies  were  independent  states,  and  their 
institutions  were  generally  improvements  on  those  of  the  parent-country 
Owing  to  their  freedom  and  their  superiority  to  their  neighbors  in  the 
arts  of  civi,lized  life,  many  of  the  colonies  not  only  equalled  but  greatly 
surpassed   their  parent  states  in  wealth  and  power. 


GRECIAN  STATES  AND  COLONIES.  M 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    HISTORY    OF 

THE  GRECIAN  STATES  AND  COLONIES, 

BEFORE    THE    PERSIAN    WAR. 

Section  I. —  Topography  of  Spuria. 

The  city  of  Spar'ta,  called  also  Lacedaj'mon,  a  name  properly  be- 
lo;  ging  to  the  suburbs,  was  built  on  a  series  of  hills,  whose  outlines  are 
varied  and  romantic,  along  the  right  bajik  of  the  Eurotas,  within  sight 
01  rlie  chain  of  Mount  Taygetum.  We  have  already  mentioned,  that  it 
was  not  originally  surrounded  by  walls  ;  but  the  highest  of  its  eminences 
seived  as  a  citadel,  and  round  this  hill  were  ranged  five  towns,  sep- 
anued  by  considerable  intervals,  occupied  by  the  five  Spartan  tribes. 
The  great  square  or  forum,  in  which  the  principal  streets  of  these  towns 
teiininated,  was  embellished  with  temples  and  statues  :  it  contained  also 
the  edifices  in  which  the  senate,  the  ephori,  and  other  bodies  of  Spartan 
magistrates,  were  accustomed  to  assemble  :  there  was  besides  a  splen- 
did portico,  erected  by  the  Spartans  from  their  share  of  the  spoils  taken 
at  the  battle  of  Platae'a,  where  the  Persians  were  finally  overthrown. 
Instead  of  being  supported  by  pillars,  the  roof  rested  on  gigantic  statues, 
representing  Persians  habited  in  flowing  robes. 

On  the  highest  of  the  eminences  stood  a  temple  of  Miner'va,  which, 
as  well  as  the  grove  that  surrounded  it,  had  the  privileges  of  an  asylum. 
It  was  built  of  brr.ss,  as  that  at  Delphi  had  formerly  been. 

The  greater  part  of  these  edifices  had  no  pretensions  to  architectural 
beauty ;  they  were  of  rude  workmanship,  and  destitute  of  ornament. 
Private  houses  were  small  and  unadorned ;  for  the  Spartans  spent  the 
gxeater  part  of  their  time  in  porticoes  and  public  halls.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  city  was  the  Hippodromos,  or  course  for  horse  and  foot 
races  ;  and  at  a  little  distance  from  that,  the  Platanis'tae,  or  place  of  ex- 
ercise for  youth,  shaded  by  beautiful  palm-trees. 

Section  II. — Legislation  of  Lyeurgus,  and  Messenian   Wars. 

FROM  *B.  C.  880    TO    B.  C.  500. 

The  Dorian  conquerors  of  Laconia  formed  themselves  into  a  perma- 
nent ruling  caste,  and  reduced  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  to  a  state  of  vassalage,  or  rather  perfect  slavery.  During  two 
centuries  the  Spartans  were  engaged  in  tedious  wars  with  the  Argives, 


05  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

and  their  state  was  agitated  by  domestic  broils,  resulting  from  the  un 
equal  division  of  property,  the  ambition  of  rival  nobles,  and  the  dimin- 
ished power  of  the  kings.  At  length,  Lycur'gus  having  obtained  th^ 
supreme  authority,  as  a  guardian  of  his  nephew  Charilaus,  directed  his 
attention  to  establishing  a  system  of  law,  which  might  prevent  the  re- 
currence of  such  disorders.  The  legislation  of  Lycur'gus  was  not  a 
written  code  ;  and  many  things  of  later  origin,  have  been  erroneously  at- 
tributed to  this  lawgiver.  His  great  object,  was  to  insure  the  continu- 
ance of  the  Spartans  as  a  dommant  military  caste,  by  perpetuating  a 
race  of  athletic  and  warlike  men  ;  and  hence  his  laws  referred  rather  to 
domestic  life  and  physical  education  than  to  the  constitution  of  the  state, 
or  the  form  of  its  government. 

He  continued  the  relation  of  caste  between  the  Spartans  and  Laconi 
ans,  and  the  double  line  of  kings  as  leaders  in  war  and  first  magistrates 
in  peace.  He  is  said  to  have  instituted  the  gcrusia,  or  senate,  of 
which  no  one  could  be  a  member  who  had  not  passed  the  age  of  sixty ; 
but  it  is  uncertain  whether  he  founded  the  college  of  the  five  eph'ori,  or 
inspectors,  chosen  annually,  with  powers  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
the  Roman  tribunes  ;  he  certainly  did  not  invest  them  Avith  the  power 
they  assumed  in  later  ages.  There  were  also  popular  assemblies  ;  but 
they  could  originate  no  law,  nor  make  any  alteration  in  the  resolutions 
submitted  to  them  by  the  kings  and  the  senate,  their  power  being  con- 
fined to  a  simple  approbation  or  rejection. 

The  chief  regulations  in  private  life  were,  the  equal  distribution  ol 
lands,  the  removal  of  every  species  of  luxury,  the  arrangement  of  do 
mestic  relations  so  as  to  insure  a  race  of  hardy  citizens,  and  the  com- 
plete establishment  of  slavery.  Thus  a  military  commonwealth  was 
established  in  Greece,  which  for  ever  banished  a  chance  of  tranquillity  ; 
since  the  Spartan  citizens  must  have  been  impelled  to  war  by  the  rest- 
lessness common  to  man,  when  all  the  occupations  of  household  life 
and  of  agriculture  were  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Helots,  as  their 
slaves  were  usually  called.  The  strength  of  the  Spartan  army  lay  in 
its  heavy-armed  infantry ;  they  usually  fought  in  a  phalanx  or  close  col- 
umn, and  were  remarkable  for  the  skill  and  rapidity  of  their  evolutions. 
They  marched  to  the  charge  with  a  measured  regular  step,  and  never 
broke  their  ranks  either  to  plunder  or  pursue  a  flying  enemy.  After 
battle,  every  soldier  was  obliged  to  produce  his  shield,  as  a  proof  that 
he  had  behaved  bravely  and  steadily. 

The  first  great  war  in  which  the  Spartans  engaged  was  with  their 
neighbors  the  Messenians  (b.  c.  743).  After  a  long  series  of  sanguinary 
engagements,  whose  horrors  were  aggravated  by  cruel  superstitions,  the 
Messenians  were  totally  subdued,  and  forced  to  give  up  half  the 
revenue  of  their  lands  to  the  Spartans  (b.  c.  722).  During  this  war, 
the  Spartan  army,  consisting  of  the  greater  part  of  the  citizens  who  had 
attained  the  military  age,  bound  themselves  by  a  voluntary  oath  not  to 
return  home  until  they  had  subdued  their  enemies.  The  war  being  pro- 
tracted beyond  expectation,  the  senate,  fearing  that  the  Spartan  race 
would  become  extinct,  invited  the  young  men,  who  had  not  taken  the 
obligation,  to  return  home,  and  permitted  them  to  have  promiscuous  in- 
tercourse with  the  women.  The  offspring  of  these  irregular  connex- 
ions were  called  Parthen'iae  ;  they  had  no  certain  father,  nor  were  they. 


ATHENS. 


V7 


ttiDugh  citizens  of  Spartu,  entitled  to  iiny  inheritance.  Finding  them- 
selves despised  by  the  other  Spartans,  they  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
with  the  Helots,  which  was  detected  at  the  moment  it  was  about  to  ex- 
plode. The  senate,  however,  was  afraid  to  punish  so  pov/crfid  a  body  ; 
sufficient  means  of  transport,  arms,  and  munitions,  were  suppUed  to  the 
Parthen'iic,  who,  under  the  guidance  of  Phalan'tus,  proceeded  to  couth, 
crn  Italy,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Taren'tum. 

The  oppiession  of  the  Spartans  drove  the  Messenians  to  revolt,  and. 
they  found  a  worthy  leader  in  Aristom'enes,  a  youth  descended  from  the 
f.nciert  line  of  Messenian  kings.  So  rapid  and  decisive  were  his  suc- 
cesses, hat  the  Spartans  sought  the  advice  of  the  oracle,  and  received 
the  mortifying  response,  that  they  should  solicit  a  general  from  the 
Athenians.  Ambassadors  were  sent  to  urge  this  request;  and  the 
Athenians  sent  back  the  poet  Tyrta^'us,  who  had,  indeed,  borne  arms, 
but  was  never  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  His  patriotic  odes  roused  the 
spirit  of  the  Spartan  soldiers,  and  they  renewed  the  war  with  more  zeal 
and  greater  success  than  ever.  Notwithstanding  these  advantages 
acquired  by  the  Spartans,  Aristom'enes  protracted  the  defence  of  his 
country  more  than  eleven  years  ;  but  at  length  Messene  was  taken  by 
treachery,  aud  its  heroic  defenders  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  Arcadia. 
Here  Aristom'enes  planned  an  expedition  against  Sparta,  v/hose  citi- 
zens were  engaged  in  plundering  Messenia ;  but  he  was  betrayed  by 
the  Arcadian  monarch,  and  his  last  plan  for  the  redemption  of  his  coun- 
try frustrated  (b.  c.  671). 

Sparta  had ,  conquered,  but  the  struggle  had  greatly  weakened  the 
strength  of  the  state  ;  and  in  her  subsequent  wars  with  the  Tegeans  and 
Argives,  she  was  far  from  maintaining  her  ancient  superiority  in  arms. 
The  important  island  of  Cythera  was,  however,  wrested  from  the  Ar- 
pives,  about  b.  c.  550. 

Section  III. —  Topography  of  Athens. 

Atm£iVS  was  situated  in  a  plain,  which  on  the  southwest,  extended 
for  about  four  miles  toward  the  sea  and  the  harbors,  but  on  the  othei 
side  was  enclosed  by  mountains.  Several  rocky  hills  arose  in  the  plain 
itself;  the  largest  and  highest  of  which  was  fortified  by  Cecrops  as  the 
citadel,  or  Acropolis,  and  was  sometimes  called  Cecropia.  Around  this 
the  city  was  built,  most  of  the  buildings,  however,  spreading  toward  the 
sea.  The  summit  of  the  hill  was  nearly  level  for  a  space  of  about 
eight  hundred  feet  in  length  and  four  hundred  in  breadth ;  as  if  Nature 
hel-sclf  had  prepared  a  fit  locality  for  those  masterpieces  of  architec- 
ture which  announced  at  a  distance  the  splendor  of  Athens.  The  only 
road  that  led  ^o  the  Acrop'oUs  passed  through  the  Propylaea,  amagnificem 
gateway  adorned  with  two  wings,  and  two  temples  full  of  the  finest 
pieces  of  sculpture  and  painting.  It  was  erected  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Per'icles,  by  the  architect  Mnesic'les,  and  was  decorated  with 
admirable  sculptures  of  Phid'ias.  Through  these  splendid  portals  wa.*? 
an  ascent  by  marble  steps  to  the  summit  of  the  hill,  on  which  were 
erected  the  temples  of  the  guardian  deities  of  Athens.  On  the  left  was 
the  temple  of  Pallas  Athene  {Minerva),  the  protectress  of  cities,  con- 
taining a  column  fabled  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  an  olive-tref 

7 


98  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

believed  to  have  sprung  spontaneously  from  the  earth  at  the  mandat-eol 
the  i^oddess.  Beyond  this  was  a  temple  of  Neptune.  On  the  righ 
side  arose  the  Par'thenon,  sacred  to  the  virgin  Minerva,  the  glory  of 
Athene,  the  noblest  triumph  of  Grecian  architecture.  From  whatever 
quarter  the  traveller  arrived,  whether  by  land  or  sea,  the  first  thing  he 
saw  was  the  Par'thenon  rearing  up  its  lofty  head  above  the  city  and 
ihp  citadel. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Acrop'olis,  on  one  side,  was  the  Odeum,  ?r  music- 
hall,  and  the  Theatre  of  Bacchus,  where  the  tragic  contests  were  cel- 
ebrated on  the  festival  of  that  deity ;  on  the  other  side  was  the  Pry- 
taneum,  where  the  chief  magistrates  and  most  meritorious  citizens  were 
honorably  entertained  at  a  table  furnished  at  the  public  expense. 

A  small  valley  called  Coele  {the  hollow)  lay  between  the  Acrop'olis 
and  the  hill  on  which  the  court  of  Areop'agus  held  its  sessions  ;  and  it 
also  separated  the  Areop'agus  from  the  Pnyx,  a  small  rocky  hill  on  which 
the  ueneral  assemblies  of  the  people  were  held.  It  was  remarkable 
only  for  the  meanness  and  simplicity  of  its  furniture,  which  formed  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  grandeur  of  the  neighboring  buildings.  Here 
the  spot  from  which  the  eminent  orators  addressed  the  people  may  still 
be  seen  :  for  it  is  imperishable,  being  cut  in  the  natural  rock,  and  it  has 
been  recently  cleared  from  rubbish,  as  well  as  the  four  steps  by  which 
it  was  ascended. 

Beyond  the  Pnyx  lay  the  Ceramicus,  or  pottery-ground,  containing 
the  market-place.  This  was  a  large  square,  surrounded  on  all  sides 
with  statues  and  public  buildings  ;  at  the  south  was  the  senate-house, 
and  the  statues  of  the  Epon'ymi,  ten  heroes  from  whom  the  tribes  of 
Athens  received  their  respective  names.  At  the  east  were  erected  two 
splendid  stoai,  or  porticoes  ;  that  of  the  Her'mae,  or  statues  of  Mercury, 
on  which  were  inscribed  the  names  of  the  citizens,  allies,  and  slaves, 
who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Persian  war ;  and  that  called 
Poecile,  ornamented  with  many  splendid  paintings,  particularly  one 
representing  Miltiades  at  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Under  this  sloa  the 
philosopher  Zeno  used  to  lecture  his  pupils,  whence  his  followers  are 
called  Stoics. 

There  were  three  principal  gymnasia,  or  places  of  public  exercise,  near 
the  city,  where  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  delivered  their  lectures. 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  was  the  Academy,  deriving  its  name  from 
having  been  the  country-seat  of  the  wealthy  Academus,  who  spent  the 
greater  part  of  a  large  fortune  in  ornamenting  this  delightful  spot. 
Here  Plato  delivered  his  eloquent  lectures,  and  hence  his  followers  are 
called  Academics.  The  Lyceum,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  city,  near 
the  Ilys'sus,  was  chosen  by  Aristotle  for  his  school  after  his  return 
from  Macedon,  the  Academy  having  been  pre-occupied  by  Xen'ocrates 
He  generally  instructed  his  pupils  while  walking  about  the  groves  and 
avenues  of  this  highly-cultivated  place,  and  on  this  account  his  followers 
were  called  Peripatetics.  Cynosar'ges  was  about  a  mile  from  the 
Lyceum,  and  was  the  residence  of  Antis'thenes,  the  founder  of  the 
Cynic  sect. 

The  whole  country  round  Athens,  particularly  the  long  road  to  the 
Peirae'us,  was  ornamented  with  monuments  of  all  kinds,  especially  with 
tombs  of  great  poets,  statesmen,  and  warriors.     This  road  was  enclosed 


ATHENS. 


99 


6y  a  double  wall,  called  the  northern  and  southern,  erected  under  the 
administration  of  Themis'toclcs  :  it  was  nearly  five  miles  in  length  on 
both  sides,  and  enclosed  the  two  harbors  Peirae'us  and  PhaFereus.  It 
was  rather  more  than  eighty  feet  high,  built  entirely  of  freestone,  and 
so  broad  that  two  baggage-wagons  could  pass  each  other.  The  Pei- 
ra)'us  and  Phal'ereus,  but  especially  the  former,  might  be  regarded  aa 
little  cities,  with  public  squares,  temples,  market-places,  &c. ;  and  the 
commercial  crowd  that  enliven  the  quays  gave  the  chief  harbor  a  more 
animated  appearance  than  Athens  itself.  The  Munychian  port  lay  eist 
of  Athens,  and,  like  the  others,  was  formed  naturally  by  the  bays  of  the 
coast.  It  was  a  place  of  considerable  natural  strength,  and  was  gar- 
risoned by  the  Lacedaemonians  after  they  had  subdued  Athens. 

Section  IV. — The  History  of  Alliens  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian  War. 

FROM    *B.    C.   1300    TO    B.    C.    500. 

The  political  history  of  Athens  begins  properly  Avith  the  reign  cf 
Theseus,  who  succeeded  his  father  iEgeus  about  b.  c.  1300.  Certain 
institutions,  such  as  the  court  of  Areop'agus,  and  the  division  of  the 
people  into  eupat'ridse  [nobles),  georgi  [husbandmen),  and  demiur'gi  [me- 
tchanics),  are  so  manifestly  derived  from  the  Egyptian  system  of  caste, 
that  wo  may  without  hesitation  assign  them  to  Cecrops.  Theseus, 
however,  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  state,  since,  in- 
stead of  the  four  independent  districts,  or  dembi,  into  which  Attica  was 
divided,  he  established  one  body  politic,  and  made  Athens  the  seat  of 
government.  Among  his  successors,  the  most  remarkable  were  Mnes'- 
theus,  who  fell  before  Troy,  and  Codrus,  whose  generous  devotion,  as 
has  been  already  related,  led  to  the  total  abolition  of  royalty.  After 
the  abolition  of  royalty  (b.  c.  1068),  thirteen  archons  of  his  family  ruled 
in  succession,  differing  from  kings  only  in  being  accountable  for  their 
administration.  The  first  was  Medon,  the  last  Alcmaeon ;  after  his 
death  (b.  c.  752),  archons  were  chosen  every  ten  years  from  the  family 
of  Codrua  There  were  seven  of  these,  the  last  of  whom  ceased  to 
rule  b.  c.  682.  Nine  annual  archons  were  then  appointed  by  the  pow- 
erful class  of  nobility,  consisting  not  only  of  the  descendants  of  such 
foreign  princes  as  had  taken  refuge  in  Athens,  but  of  those  Athenian 
families  which  time  and  accident  had  raised  to  opulence  ana  distinc- 
tion. The  powers  of  these  magistrates  were  not  equal ;  their  rank  and 
offices  wen  so  arranged,  that  the  prerogatives  of  the  former  kings  and 
the  preceding  archons  were  divided  among  the  first  three  of  the  nine. 
Nothing  was  gained  by  the  great  body  of  the  people  during  these  rev- 
olutions. The  equestrian  order,  so  called  from  their  fighting  on  horse- 
back, enjoyed  all  authority,  religious,  civil,  and  military.  The  Athenian 
populace  were  reduced  to  a  condition  of  miserable  servitude ;  the  lives 
and  fortunes  of  individuals  were  left  at  the  discretion  of  magistrates, 
•»ho  were  too  much  disposed  to  decide  according  to  party  prejudices 
or  their  own  private  interests. 

In  this  confusion,  Draco  was  chosen  to  prepare  a  code  of  laws  (b.  c. 
622).  He  was  a  man  of  unswerving  integrity,  but  of  unexampled  severity. 
His  laws  bore  the  impress  of  his  character  ;  the  punishment  of  death 
was  denounced  against  all  crimes,  small  as  well  as  great ;  and  this  ii\- 


100  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

discriminate  cruelty  rendered  the  whole  code  inoperative.  Human  na 
ture  revolted  against  such  legal  butchery  ;  and  Draco,  to  avoid  the  puh 
lie  indignation,  fled  to  iEgi'na,  where  he  died  an  exile. 

This  ineffectual  effort  only  augmented  the  divisions  of  the  state  ;  the 
excesses  of  the  aristocratic  factions  produced  the  most  violent  indigna- 
tion. The  state  was  in  fact  reduced  to  perfect  anarchy.  To  remedy 
these  disorders,  Solon,  who  had  already  won  the  confidence  of  his 
countrymen  by  planning  and  accomplishing  an  enterprise  for  the  re- 
covery of  Sal'amis,  was  unanimously  raised  to  the  dignity  of  firsi 
magistrate,  legislator,  and  sovereign  arbiter  (b.  c.  594).  He  was  em- 
inently qualified  for  this  important  station.  Descended  from  the 
ancient  kings  of  Athens,  he  applied  himself  in  early  life  to  commercial 
pursuits,  and  having  secured  a  competency  by  honorable  industry,  he 
travelled  to  distant  lands  in  search  of  knowledge.  Such  was  his  suc- 
cess, that  he  was  reckoned  the  chief  of  the  sages  commonly  called  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  who  in  his  age  laid  the  foundation  o( 
Grecian  philosophy. 

The  chief  object  of  Solon's  legislation  was  to  restrain  the  excessive 
power  of  the  aristocracy,  without,  however,  introducing  a  pure  democ- 
racy. He  abolished  all  the  laws  of  Draco,  except  those  against  mur- 
der. The  state  of  debtors  calling  loudly  for  relief,  he  made  an  equita- 
ble adjustment  of  the  claims  of  creditors  ;  but  at  the  same  time  concil- 
iated capitalists  by  raising  the  value  of  money.  He  abolished  slavery 
and  imprisonment  for  debt,  which  had  led  to  great  abuses  and  cruelties 

Without  abolishing  the  ancient  local  divisions  he  arranged  the  citizen.s 
in  four  classes,  according  to  their  property,  measured  in  agricultural 
produce.  1 .  The  first  class  were  the  pentacos'i-medim'ni,  whose  annual 
income  exceeded  five  hundred  bushels  (medim'ni ;  2,  the  knights  (hip- 
peis),  whose  revenue  was  equal  to  four  hvmdred ;  3,  the  zeugitae,  who 
had  three  hundred  ;  and  4,  the  thetes,  whose  yearly  revenue  fell  short 
of  that  sum.  Citizens  of  all  classes  had  a  right  of  voting  at  the  popular 
assemblies  and  in  the  courts  of  judicature  ;  but  magisterial  offices  were 
limited  to  the  first  three  classes.  The  archonship  was  left  unaltered ; 
but  it  was  ordained  that  none  of  these  magistrates  should  hold  military 
command  during  his  year  of  office.  A  council  of  four  hundred  was 
chosen  from  the  first  three  classes,  possessing  senatorial  authority :  the 
members  were  selected  by  lot ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  undergo  a  very 
strict  examination  into  their  past  lives  and  characters  before  they  were 
permitted  to  enter  upon  office.  The  archons  were  bound  to  consult  the 
council  in  every  important  public  matter  ;  and  no  subject  could  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  general  assembly  of  the  people  which  had  not  previously 
received  the  sanction  of  the  four  hundred. 

The  popular  assemblies  consisted  of  all  the  four  classes,  and  usually 
met  on  the  rocky  hill  called  the  Pnyx,  described  in  the  proceeding  sec- 
tion. They  had  the  right  of  confirming  or  rejecting  new  laws,  of  elect- 
ing the  magistrates,  of  dis.cussing  all  public  affairs  referred  to  them  by 
the  council,  and  of  judging  in  all  state  trials. 

According  to  Solon's  plan,  the  court  of  Areop'agus  should  have  been 
the  chief  pillar  of  the  AtlKjnian  constitution.  Before  his  time  it  was  a 
mere  engine  of  aristocratic  oppression  ;  but  Solon  modified  its  constitu- 
tion, and  enlarged  its  powers.     It  was  composed  of  persons  who  had 


ATHENS.  101 

held  the  office  of  archoii,  and  was  made  the  supreme  tribmial  .n  all 
capital  cases.  It  was  likewise  in'rusted  with  the  superintendence  of 
morals,  with  the  censorship  upon  the  conduct  of  the  archons  at  the  ex- 
piration of  their  office  ;  and  it  had  besides  the  privilege  of  amending  or 
rescinding  the  measures  that  had  passed  the  general  assemblies  of  the 
people. 

Soon  after  this  constitution  was  established,  Solon  was  sent  as  a 
deputy  to  the  Amphictyon'ic  council  at  Del'phi,  and  had  no  small  share 
in  stimulating  that  body  to  undertake  the  first  sacred  war  against  the 
Crisseans  who  had  invaded  the  sacred  territories,  and  not  only  ravaged 
the  country,  but  even  plundered  the  shrine  of  Apol'lo.  The  war  was 
protracted  ten  years  ;  but  it  terminated  in  the  final  destruction  of  the 
Crissean  community,  and  the  dedication  of  their  territory  to  the  deh" 
whose  temple  they  had  sacrilegiously  plundered  (b.  c.  584).  The  ter- 
mination of  the  war  was  celebrated  by  the  revival  of  the  Pythian  games, 
which  had  been  discontinued  durinsf  the  contest. 

Scarcely  had  the  liberties  of  Athens  been  established,  Avhen  thev 
were  again  subverted  by  the  usurpation  of  Peisis'tratus.  Like  Solon, 
the  usurper  was  descended  from  the  ancient  kings  of  Athens.  He  was 
also  possessor  of  an  enormous  fortune,  which  he  distributed  to  the  poor 
with  lavish  munificence.  His  generosity,  his  eloquence,  and  his  cour- 
teous manners,  won  for  him  universal  favor :  but  he  had  the  art  to  per- 
suade the  lower  ranks  of  his  countrymen,  that  his  popularity  had  ren- 
dered him  odious  to  the  nobles,  and  that  the  protection  of  a  body-guard 
was  necessary  to  the  safety  of  his  life.  Scarcely  had  this  been  granted, 
when  he  seized  on  the  Acrop'olis,  and  made  himself  absolute  master  of 
Athens  (b.  c.  561).  Solon  refused  the  usurper's  offers  of  favor  and  pro- 
tection :  he  vv'ent  into  voluntary  exile,  and  died,  or  at  least  was  buried, 
at  Sal'amis.  Meg'acles,  the  chief  of  the  powerful  family  of  the 
Alcmaeon'idse,  retired,  with  all  his  attendants  and  political  friends,  be- 
yond the  boundaries  of  At/tica ;  but  he  entered  into  a  secret  intrigue 
witli  Lycur'gus,  the  chief  of  another  faction,  and  by  their  joint  efforts 
Peisis'tratus  was  driven  into  exile  about  twelve  months  after  he  had 
obtained  the  sovereignty. 

Meg'acles  soon  quarrelled  with  Lycur'gus,  and  opened  a  negotiation 
with  Peisis'tratus,  offering  to  restore  him,  if  he  would  become  his  son- 
in-law.  The  terms  were  accepted,  and  Peisis'tratus  was  again  sum- 
moned to  assume  sovereign  power,  amid  the  general  exultation  of  the 
people.  A  quarrel  with  Meg'acles  drove  him  a  second  time  into  ban- 
ishment ;  but  he  returned  again  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  having 
recovered  the  reins  of  power,  held  them  without  interruption  to  the  day 
of  his  death.  The  power  thus  illegally  acquired,  was  administered 
with  equity  and  mildness.  Peisis'tratus  ceased  not  to  exert  himself  to 
extend  the  glory  of  Athens,  and  secure  the  happiness  of  the  Athenians 

On  the  death  of  Peisis'tratus  (b.  c.  528),  his  sons  Hippar'chus  and 
Hip'pias  succeeded  to  his  power,  but  not  to  his  prudence  and  abilities 
After  a  joint  reign  of  fourteen  years,  Hippar'chus  was  murdered  by  two 
young  Athenians,  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton,  whose  resentment  he 
had  provoked  by  an  atrocious  insult  (b.  c.  514).  The  cruelty  with 
which  Hip  pias  punished  all  whom  he  suspected  of  having  had  a  share 
in  his  brother's  death,  alienated  the  affections  of  the  people,  and  encour 


102  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Rged  the  AIcnifEonidEe  to  make  an  effort  for  his  ex}xilsion.  By  large 
bribes  to  the  Delphian  priesthood,  they  obtained  a  response  from  the 
oracle  commanding  the  Spartans  to  expel  the  Peisistrat'ldee  ;  and  that 
st.perstitious  people  immediately  sent  an  army  for  that  purpose  (b.  c. 
510).  After  a  brief  struggle  Ilip'pias  was  forced  to  abandon  Athens,  and 
thenceforward  lived  in  perpetual  exile. 

Scarcely  was  the  tyrant  expelled,  when  the  state  was  rent  in  sunder 
by  the  rivalry  of  contending  factions.  Clis'thenes,  the  son  of  Meg'acles, 
headed  one ;  the  other,  chiefly  composed  of  the  aristocracy,  was  led  by 
Isag'oras.  Isag'oras  received  armies  to  support  his  cause  from  the  Spar- 
tans, the  Corinthians,  the  Boeotians,  the  Chalcidians,  and  the  ^Egine- 
tans.  But  the  confederates  could  not  agree  ;  and  these  dissensions 
broke  up  the  alliance.  After  some  time,  the  Spartans,  having  discover- 
ed the  trick  played  upon  them  by  the  Delphian  oracle,  wished  to  re- 
store Hip'pias  ;  but,  finding  their  alliesi  universally  opposed  to  the  proj- 
ect, they  abandoned  him  to  his  fate,  and  he  fled  to  the  court  of  Persia, 
where  his  exertions  greatly  contributed  to  the  forcing  Darius  into  a  war 
against  Greece. 

Section  V. — Historical  Notices  of  the  minor  Crrecian  Stales  previous  to  the 

Persian  War. 

FROM  *B.   C.    1100  TO   B.   C.  500. 

After  the  capture  of  Thebes  by  the  Epig'oni,  the  Boeotians  were  ex- 
pelled by  Thracian  hordes,  and  retired  to  Ar'ne  in  Thessaly,  but  about 
the  time  of  the  great  Dorian  migration  they  returned  to  the  land  of  their 
forefathers,  and  became  united  with  some  iEolian  tribes. 

Royalty  was  abolished  upon  the  death  of  Xiithus  (b.  c.  1126),  and 
the  Boeotians  formed  a  confederation  of  as  many  states  as  there  were 
cities  in  the  province  :  at  the  head  of  which  was  Thebes,  but  with  very 
indefinite  privileges.  The  constitutions  of  the  states  were  unfixed ; 
and  they  continually  fluctuated  between  a  licentious  democracy  and  a 
tyrannical  oligarchy.  This  great  evil,  combined  with  the  unsettled 
nature  of  the  confederation,  prevented  the  Boeotians  from  taking  a  lead- 
ing share  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 

Acarnania,  iEtolia,  and  Locris,  offer  nothing  remarkable ;  and  the 
most  important  event  in  the  history  of  Phocis  was  the  sacred  war,  which 
has  been  described  in  the  last  section.  The  states  of  Thessaly  were 
for  the  most  part  governed  by  arbitrary  individuals. 

In  the  Peloponnesus,  Corinth  was  the  most  remarkable  state  next  to 
Sparta.  At  the  time  of  the  Dorian  conquest  of  southern  Greece,  its 
durone  was  seized  by  Aletes,  whose  descendants  retained  the  power  and 
title  of  royalty  for  five  generations.  On  the  death  of  Teles'sus,  the  last 
of  the  Aletian  race,  Bac'chis  usurped  the  throne  (b.  c.  777),  and  hia 
descendants,  called  Bacchiadae,  held  the  regal  authority  for  five  genera 
tions  more.  Teles'tes,  the  last  of  these  kings,  having  been  murdered, 
the  kingly  office  was  abolished,  and  a  species  of  oligarchy  established 
in  its  stead,  under  yearly  magistrates,  called  prytanes,  chosen  exclu- 
sively from  the  house  of  Bac'chis.  It  would  have  been  scarcely  possi- 
ble for  such  a  narrow  oligarchy  to  maintain  its  ground,  even  if  it  had 


PRINCIPAL  GRECIAN  ISLANDS.  103 

used  its  power  with  moderation  and  wisdom ;  but  the  Baccliiads,  proud 
of  their  race  and  great  commercial  wealth,  iusuhed  their  subjects  ;  and 
Cyp'sclus,  an  opulent  citizen  of  ^Eolian  descent,  aided  by  the  com- 
monalty, usurped  the  governnient  (b.  c.  657),  and  held  the  supreme 
power  for  thirty  years.  On  his  death,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Perian'der,  who  is  sometimes  ranked  among  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of 
Greece,  though  he  is  described  by  many  writers  as  a  rapacious,  oppres- 
sive, and  cruel  despot.  His  reign  lasted  forty  years,  and  yet  is  supposed 
to  have  been  shortened  either  by  violence  or  grief  for  the  loss  of  his 
son.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Psammet'ichus,  whose  reign 
lasted  only  three  years,  when  he  was  expelled  by  his  subjec's,  assisted 
by  a  Spartan  army  (b.  c.  584).  This  revolution  was  followed  by  the 
establishment  of  a  commercial  aristocracy,  whose  exact  constitution  is 
unknown,  but  which  long  kept  Corinth  in  close  alliance  with  Sparta. 
The  Corinthian  trade  consisted  chiefly  in  the  exchange  of  Asiatic  and 
Italian  merchandise,  for  which  her  position  gave  her  many  peculiar 
advantages.  The  period  of  Corinth's  highest  prosperity  clos-ed  with  the 
government  of  the  Cyp'selids  ;  and  the  loss  of  Corcy'ra  one  of  her  colonies 
which  had  been  kept  in  subjection  by  Per'iander,  but  revolted  after  his 
death,  proved  a  blow  to  her  power  which  she  never  recovered.  The 
naval  engagement  between  the  Corcyrians  and  Corinthians  (b.  c.  650) 
is  the  first  sea-fight  recorded  in  history. 

The  history  of  Sic'yon  and  the  other  Achaean  states  presents  a  series 
of  revolutions  similar  to  those  of  Corinth.  After  various  revolutions  and 
usurpations,  they  all  adopted  republican  institutions,  about.the  time  that 
the  Cyp'selids  were  expelled  from  Corinth. 

The  constitution  of  Arcadia  became  republican  when  AristodemuS; 
its  last  king,  was  stoned  by  his  subjects  for  having  betrayed  Aristom'- 
enes  and  the  Messenians. 

The  regal  dignity  was  abolished  in  Argos  so  early  as  b.  c.  984 ;  but 
nothing  is  known  of  the  circumstances  that  led  to  the  change,  or  the 
peculiar  nature  of  the  republic  by  which  it  was  succeeded. 

E'lis  preserved  its  internal  peace,  owing  to  the  wise  laws  of  Ipn'- 
itus,  a  contemporary  of  Lycur'gus  ;  while  the  sanctity  of  its  soil  ensured 
its  external  security.  After  the  abolition  of  royal  power  two  supreme 
mapristrates  were  chosen,  called  Hellanodica?,  to  whose  office  was  added 
the^charge  of  superintending  the  Olympic  games.  Their  number  wa* 
subsequently  increased  to  ten,  one  being  chosen  from  each  of  the  Elia. 
tribes  ;  and  their  power  was  limited  by  a  senate  of  ninety,  whose  mem 
bers  were  chosen  for  life. 

Section  VI. — History  of  the  principal  Grecian  Islands. 

The  revolutions  in  the  Grecian  islands  were  very  similar  to  those 
on  the  continent,  republican  constitutions  having  succeeded  to  mon- 
archy in  most  of  them.  After  the  Athenians  had  acquired  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  sea,  the  insular  states  lost  their  independence  ;  for  though 
they  were  called  confederates,  they  were  treated  as  subjects  ;  no  change, 
however,  was  made  in  the'.r  internal  constitutions.  We  shall  only  no- 
tice the  islands  that  were  iiost  remarkable  in  history. 

Corcy'ra  was  occupied  by  a  Corinthian  colony  under  Chersic'ratea 


^04  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

(b.  c.  753),  who  (.  xpelled  or  subdued  the  former  inhabitants.  As  tha 
leader  and  most  of  his  companions  had  been  driA^en  into  exile  by  polit* 
ical  commotions,  they  retained  but  little  affection  for  the  parent  state  ; 
while  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Corcyrean  power  excited  the  commer- 
cial jealousy  of  Corinth.  These  circumstances  led  to  an  open  war. 
The  Corcyrean  constitution  appears  to  have  been  originally  aristocratic 
or  oligarchical,  like  that  of  most  Dorian  states ;  but  after  the  Persian 
wars  a  democratic  faction  arose,  powerfully  supported  by  the  Athenians, 
which  produced  the  most  violent  internal  commotions,  and  ended  in  the 
total  ruin  of  Corey 'ra. 

iEgma,  first  colonized  b.  c.  1358,  rapidly  grew,  by  commerce,  and 
navigation,  to  be  one  of  the  first  Grecian  states.  It  even  established 
colonies  of  its  own  in  Crete  and  Pontus.  ^gfna  was  long  the  suc- 
cessful rival  of  Athens ;  it  was  subdued  by  Themis'tocles  (b.  c.  485). 

The  island  of  Eubce'a  received  many  different  colonies  from  the  main- 
land of  Greece  ;  but  its  cities  Avere  not  united  by  any  confederation, 
each  possessing  a  separate  constitution.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Athe- 
nians after  the  Persian  wars  ;  but  the  islanders  made  several  sanguin- 
ary struggles  to  regain  their  independence. 

The  Cyc'lades  were  all,  except  Delos,  rendered  tributary  to  Athens, 
when  that  state  acquired  the  supremacy  of  the  sea. 

Crete  was  celebrated  in  the  heroic  ages  for  the  laws  of  Minos  (*b.  c. 
1300).  After  the  death  of  Clean'thus  (*b.  c.  800),  republican  constitu- 
tions were  adopted  in  the  principal  cities,  which  thenceforth  became  in- 
dependent states.  The  Cretans  rarely  engaged  in  foreign  wars,  but 
they  v.'ere  almost  incessantly  involved  in  mutual  hostilities ;  a  circum- 
stance that  tended  greatly  to  degrade  the  national  character. 

Cy'prus  was  only  partially  colonized  by  the  Greeks,  whose  principal 
settlement  v/as  at  Sal'amis,  founded  by  Teucer,  a  little  after  the  Trojan 
war  (b.  c.  1100).  The  island  was  successively  subject  to  the  Phoeni- 
cians, Egyptians,  and  Persians.  The  kings  of  Sal'amis  frequently  re- 
volted against  their  Persian  masters,  and  always  maintained  a  qualified 
independence.  When  Alexander  the  Great  besieged  Tyre  (b.  c.  332), 
he  was  voluntarily  joined  by  the  nine  Cypriot  kings,  and  thenceforth 
the  island  was  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  monarchy. 

The  history  of  Rhodes  belongs  properly  to  the  portion  of  this  work 
which  treats  of  the  successors  of  Alexander,  to  which  we  refer  owl 
readers. 

Section  VII. — History  of  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Asia  Minor. 
yROM  b.    c.  1200  TO  B.  c.  500. 

The  colonies  founded  by  the  Greeks,  between  the  period  of  the  Dorian 
migration  and  the  final  subversion  of  Grecian  liberty  by  the  triumph  of 
the  Macedonians,  were  the  most  numerous  and  important  established  by 
any  nation,  and  all  acted  a  very  conspicuous  part  in  accelerating  the 
progress  of  civilization. 

The  colonies  that  first  engage  our  attention  are  those  that  were  es- 
tablished along  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the  Hellespont 
to  the  confines  of  Cilic'ia,  in  consequence  of  the  revolutions  produced 
oy  the  Dorian  migration  and  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus.     They  were 


GREEK    COLONIES  IN  ASIA   MINOR.  103 

established  by  the  ^olians,  lonians,  and  Carians  ;  their  commerce  soon 
exceeded  that  of  the  parent  states  ;  and  in  them  were  produced  the  firsi 
of  Grecian  poets,  Homer  and  Alcae'us  ;  and  the  first  of  Grecian  philos- 
ophers, Thales  and  Pythag'oras. 

The  iEoLiANs,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus,  settled  for  a 
time  in  Thrace,  whence  they  passed  over,  after  the  lapse  of  a  genera- 
tion, to  Asia  (*B.  c.  1124),  and  occupied  the  coasts  of  iMysia  and  Caria 
giving  to  the  strip  of  land  they  colonized  the  name  of  iEolis.  They 
acquired  possession,  also,  of  the  islands  of  Les'bos,  Ten'edos,  and  the 
cluster  called  the  Hecatonnesi  (hundred  islands).  Twelve  cities  were 
erected  on  the  mainland  by  the  iEolians,  of  which  the  chief  were  Cyme 
and  Smyr'na.  The  latter  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Lydiaiis  ^*b.  c. 
600),  and  was  not  restored  until  four  hundred  years  later,  when  it  be- 
came a  flourishing  Macedonian  colony.  The  ^olian  cities  maintained 
their  independence  until  the  age  of  Cy'rus,  when  those  on  the  mainland 
were  subdued  by  the  Persians.  When  Athens  acquired  supremacy  by 
sea,  the  insular  states  were  forced  to  submit  to  her  authority,  and  were 
in  general  ruled  with  great  severity. 

The  Ionian  migration  took  place  some  years  after  the  iEolian,  about 
B.  c.  1044.  It  was  the  largest  that  ever  left  Greece  ;  and  fortunately 
it  is  that,  with  whose  details  we  are  best  acquainted.  It  originated  in 
the  abolition  of  royalty  at  Athens  :  the  sons  of  Codrus  reluctant  to  live 
as  private  individuals,  declared  their  design  of  leading  a  colony  into 
Asia :  they  were  readily  joined  by  the  Ionian  exiles  from  the  northern 
Peloponnesus,  who  were  straitened  for  room  in  At'tica,  and  by  large 
bands  of  emigrants  from  the  neighboring  stales,  actuated  by  political  dis 
content,  or  the  mere  love  of  change.  They  were  supplied  liberally 
with  ships  and  munitions  of  war.  They  pursued  their  voyage  to 
Asia  Minor,  and  landed  on  the  coast  south  of  iE'olis.  After  a  long  se- 
ries of  sanguinary  wars,  the  native  barbarians  resigned  their  lands 
to  the  intruders  ;  and  the  lonians  acquired  possession  of  the  whole  of 
the  valuable  district  between  Miletus  and  Mount  Sip'ylus. 

The  lonians  then  began  to  erect  cities  ;  they  established  twelve, 
united  by  an  Amphictyon'ic  confederacy ;  viz.,  Eph'esus,  Ery'three, 
Clazom'enae,  Colophon,  My'us,  Miletus,  Priene,  Phocac'a,  Leb'edos, 
Samos,  Teos,  and  Chios,  of  which  the  last  three  were  insular  stations. 

Miletus  was  the  chief  of  the  Ionian  colonies  :  but  Eph'esus  was  the 
most  renowned  of  the  cities. 

All  the  Ionian  cities  were  united  by  an  Amphictyon'ic  confederacy. 
Deputies  from  the  different  states  met,  at  stated  times,  in  a  temple  of 
Nep'tune,  erected  on  the  headland  of  Mycale,  which  they  named  Heli- 
concan,  from  Helfce,  the  chief  of  their  ancient,  cities  in  the  northern 
Peloponnesus.  Here  they  deliberated  on  all  matters  that  affected  the 
Pan-Ionian  league  ;  but  the  council  never  interfered  with  the  domestic 
government  of  the  several  cities.  They  also  celebrated  festivals  and 
public  games,  which  rivalled  in  magnificence  those  of  Greece.  In  the 
midst  of  their  prosperity,  the  Ionian  cities  became  engaged  in  a  long 
and  arduous  struggle  with  the  Lydian  kings,  which  continued  almost 
without  intermission  until  both  were  absorbed  in  the  rising  greatness  of 
the  Persian  empire. 

Neither  the  extent  nor  progress  of  the  Dorian  colonies  could  c  "n- 


106  ANCIENT    HISTOTLY. 

pare  with  thos-e  we  havo  just  (Jescribod.  Limited  to  a  narroA-c  and  nc 
very  fruitful  territory,  their  confederation  always  continued  in  a  state  of 
feebleness  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  Halicarnas'sus,  whicli,  at  a  com- 
paratively recent  age,  became  the  capital  of  an  opulent  monarchy,  and 
the  isle  of  Rhodes,  whose  daring  navigators  rivalled  those  of  the  most 
potent  commercial  states,  there  is  scarcely  a  Dorian  state  that  rose 
above  mediocrity. 

The  Dorians,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus,  meditated  new 
acquisitions  ;  but,  being  checked  by  the  Athenians  at  Meg'ara,  they  pro 
ceeded  in  detached  bands  to  the  coast  of-  Carta,  and  to  the  islands  of 
Cos  and  Rhodes.  It  is  impossible  to  assign  the  exact  age  of  these  mi 
grations  ;  but  they  were  certainly  later  than  the  Ionian  and  yEolian , 
they  appear  also  to  have  been  conducted  without  any  definite  plan,  and 
to  have  taken  place  at  very  different  times.  The  six  cities  forming  the 
Doric  confederation,  called  Hexapolis,  were  Halicarnas'sus  and  Cni'dus 
on  the  Carian  peninsula,  Cos  in  the  island  of  the  same  name,  and  Ha- 
lys'sus,  Camirus,  and  Lin'dus,  in  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

The  Dorians  submitted  without  a  struggle  to  the  Persian  power,  and 
seem  to  have  made  no  effort  to  regain  their  independence. 

Section  VIII. —  The  Greek  Colonies  on  the  Euxine  Sea,  the  Coasts  of  Thrace, 

Macedon,  ^. 

Most  of  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  Propon'tis,  the 
Euxine  sea,  and  the  Palus  ?vlae6tis,  were  founded  by  the  citizens  of 
Miletus  between  the  eighth  and  sixth  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
That  city,  whose  commerce  occupied  four  harbors,  and  whose  naval 
power  amounted  to  eighty  or  a  hundred  galleys  of  war,  owed  its  great- 
ness to  its  possession  of  the  northern  trade  ;  and  to  secure  this  lucra- 
tive commerce,  it  planted  several  colonies,  all  of  which  became  pros- 
perous marts  of  trade.  Their  commerce  was  not  confined  to  the  sea- 
coasts  :  their  merchants  penetrated  into  southern  Russia,  and  advanced 
even  beyond  the  Caspian  to  the  countries  which  now  form  the  king- 
doms of  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  The  Phocseans  shared  the  honor  of 
founding  these  important  colonies  ;  but  they  were  too  much  devoted  to 
the  western  trade  to  waste  their  energies  on  the  northern ;  a'ld  it  may 
be  generally  stated,  that  the  settlements  on  the  Euxine  uepended 
chiefly  on  Miletus. 

On  the  Propon'tis  adjoining  the  Hellespont,  stood  Lamp'saciis, 
originally  foun^.ed  by  some  Phoca^ans,  who  obtained  a  grant  of  the 
site  of  the  city  from  one  of  the  native  princes  whom  they  had  assisted 
■-n  war.  It  was  afterward  occupied  by  the  Milesians,  under  whom  it 
became  a  place  of  great  wealth  and  extensive  commerce. 

Cyz'icus,  erected  on  an  island  joined  by  bridges  to  the  Asiatic  coast, 
was  a  very  ancient  city ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  colonized  in  the  earli- 
est ages  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelas'gi,  and  afterward  by  the  Argonauts. 
About  B.  c.  751,  it  was  occupied  by  the  Milesians,  who  at  the  same 
time  took  possession  of  the  neighboring  island  of  Proconnesus  [Mar' 
mora).  Cyz'icus,  in  a  late  age,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans, 
became  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  flourishing  cities  in  Asia. 

Opposite  to  Cyz'icus  on  the  Thracian  coast,  was  Perin'thus,  at  a  la« 


GREEK  COLONIES  ON  THE  EUXINE  SEA.         '07 

tei  age  called  Heracleia,  founded  by  a  Samian  colony ;  on  the  Euro- 
pean side  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus  was  Byzan'tium  [C'lnnlantinople); 
and  over  against  it,  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  Charcedon  {Scutari),  both 
colonized  from  Meg'ara. 

The  first  Greek  city  on  the  Black  sea  was  Heracleia,  on  the  Bithy- 
nian  coast,  which  appears  to  have  been  successively  colonized  from 
Meg'ara  and  Miletus. 

Sinope,  in  Paphlagonia,  was  the  most  powerful  of  the  Greek  states 
on  the  Euxine  se  a.  Amfsus,in  Pon'tus,  was,  next  to  Sinope,  the  best 
harbor  on  the  Euxine  sea.  After  having  been  long  subject  to  Miletus, 
it  was  seized  by  the  Athenians  in  the  age  of  Per'icles,  and  its  name 
changed  to  Peirae'aeus.  During  the  days  of  its  prosperity,  Amisus  is 
said  to  have  become  the  parent  of  a  colony  that  soon  surpassed  itself 
in  importance,  Trap'ezus  (Trebisonde). 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Euxine  were  Phasis,  Diosciirias,  and 
Phanagoria.  In  the  Macedonian  ago,  Phanagoria  became  the  capital 
of  the  Greek  cities  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bos'phorus  :  its  prosperity 
was  owing  to  its  being  the  chief  mart  for  the  slave-trade,  which  has 
always  prevailed  in  the  countries  round  the  Caucasus,  and  also  to  its 
being  the  staple  for  the  goods  brought  from  central  and  southern  Asia 
by  the  route  of  the  Caspian  sea  and  the  Oxus. 

The  Milesians  formed  several  establishments  in  the  Tauric  Cher- 
sonese [Crimea),  and  wrested  the  greater  part  of  that  peninsula  from 
its  barbarous  inhabitants.  The  city  of  Panticapae'um  was  the  most 
important,  and  probably  the  most  ancient,  of  these  settlements.  It  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  little  Greek  kingdom  of  the  Bos'phorus,  and 
continued  to  maintain  its  independence  until,  in  the  Roman  age,  it  was 
seized  by  Mithridates  the  Great,  who  laid  there  the  foundations  of  his 
subsequent  power. 

The  coasts  of  Thrace  and  Macedon  were  covered  with  Greek  colo- 
nies, principally  derived  from  Corinth  and  Athens. 

On  the  coasts  of  Africa  was  the  celebrated  Greek  city  of  Cyrene, 
long  the  commercial  rival  of  Carthage,  founded  by  a  Dorian  colony 
from  the  island  of  Thera  (b.  c.  651),  in  obedience  to  the  directions  of 
the  Delphic  oracle.  The  government  was  at  first  monarchical,  the  crown 
being  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Bat'tus,  the  founder.  About  b.  c. 
450,  royalty  was  abolished,  and  a  republic  formed ;  but  the  citizens  of 
Cyrene  never  were  able  to  form  a  permanent  constitution ;  and  their 
state  continued  to  be  rent  by  factions  until  it  was  annexed  to  the  Egyp- 
tian kingdom,  in  the  age  of  the  Ptolemies. 

The  history  of  the  Greek  states  in  Sicily  and  southern  Italy  being 
closely  connected  with  the  Roman  ?vars,  will  be  found  in  the  chapters 
on  Italy. 


108  ANCIENT  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  X. 

HISTORY    OF    GREECE, 

FROM  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  PERSIAN  WAR8 
TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 

FROM    B.  C.    500    TO    B.  c.    336. 
SectiOxN  I. —  The  First  Persian  War. 

FROiM  B.   C.  500   TO  B.  C.  490. 

When  Darius  Hystas'pes  invaded  Scythia,  he  intrusted  the  guard 
of  the  bridge  of  boats  that  he  had  constructed  over  the  Danube  to  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  and  Thrace,  who  had  been  so  recently  brought  under 
subjection  to  the  Persians.  Many  of  those  were  anxious  to  recover 
their  freedom,  and  they  deliberated  seriously  on  the  propriety  of  de- 
stroying the  bridge,  and  leaving  the  Persians  to  perish  without  resource 
in  an  inhospitable  desert.  The  proposal  was  strenuously  advocated  by 
Miltlades,  the  king  or  tyrant,  as  he  was  called,  of  the  Thracian  Cher- 
sonese ;  but  he  was  opposed  by  Histice'us,  the  tyrant  of  Miletus,  whose 
sel{i:ih  counsels  finally  prevailed.  Miltiades  retired  to  Athens,  his  na- 
tive city,  where  he  subsequently  rose  to  the  highest  honors  ;  Histiae'us 
accompanied  the  monarch  he  had  saved  to  the  court  of  Persia.  But 
the  gratitude  of  absolute  princes  is  not  permanent :  Histiae'us  soon 
found  that  the  very  magnitude  of  his  services  exposed  him  to  danger ; 
and  he  concerted  with  his  nephew,  Aristag'oras,  a  revolt,  which  in- 
cluded all  the  Ionian  colonies.  In  order  that  the  insurrection  should 
have  any  reasonable  prospects  of  success,  it  was  necessary  that  it  should 
be  supported  by  the  Grecian  states  ;  and  to  engage  this  assistance, 
Aristag'oras  came  to  Lacedaj'mon. 

Beirg  repulsed  at  Spar'ta,  Aristag'oras  proceeded  to  Athens,  where 
he  was' more  generously  received  (b.  c.  500).  Twenty  ships  were 
prepared  for  him  with  all  convenient  speed;  and  these  being  rein- 
forced by  live  more  from  the  little  state  of  Eret'ria,  in  the  island  of 
Euboe'a,  sailed  over  to  the  harbor  of  Miletus,  and  commenced  the  war. 
The  allies  were  at  first  very  successful.  Sar'dis,  the  wealthy  capital 
of  Lydia,  was  taken  and  plundered ;  but  Aristag'oras  had  not  the  tal- 
ents of  a  general ;  the  fruits  of  success  were  lost  as  soon  as  won  ;  the 
several  divisions  of  the  army  quarrelled  and  separated  ;  and  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  were  left  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  vengeance  of  their  -aieioilesis 
masters.  Miletus  was  taken,  its  walls  razed,  and  its  citizens  mas 
sacred     several  minor  cities  suffered  similar  calamities.     Aristag'oras 


GREECE 


lOl 


fled  to  Thrace,  wlierc  he  was  murdered  bv  the  barbarians ;  and  His« 
tife'us,  after  a  vain  attempt  to  escape,  H'as  crucified  at  Sar'dis  by  com- 
mand of  the  Persian  satrap. 

Darius  next  turned  his  resentment  agiinst  the  Greeks,  who  had  aided 
this  revolt ;  he  sent  ambassadors  to  demand  homage  from  the  Grecian 
states,  especially  requiring  the  Athenians  to  receive  back  Hip'pias, 
their  exiled  tyrant.  All  the  states,  insular  and  continental,  except 
Athens  and  Spar'ta,  proffered  submission  ;  but  those  noble  republics 
sent  back  a  haughty  defiance,  and  fearlessly  prepared  to  encounter  the 
whole  strength  of  the  Persian  empire. 

Darius,  having  prepared  a  vast  armament,  intrusted  its  command 
to  his  son-in-law  Mardonius,  who  soon  subdued  the  island  of  Thasus, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Macedon  (b.  c.  493).  But  his  fleet,  while  doubling 
Mount  A'thos,  was  shaltered  by  a  violent  storm  ;  three  hundred  vessels 
were  dashed  against  the  rocks,  and  twenty  thousand  men  are  said  to 
have  perishti  'n  the  waves.  Mardonius  returned  home  to  excuse  his 
disgrace,  by  exaggerating  the  cold  of  the  climate,  and  the  dangers  of 
the  ^Egean  sea. 

A  second  and  more  powerful  armament  was  prepared  (b.  c.  490), 
over  which  Darius  placed  his  two  best  generals,  Datis,  a  Mede,  and 
Artapher'nes,  a  Persian  nobleman.  The  fleet  passed  safely  through 
the  Cyc'lades,  and  arrived  at  the  island  of  Eubce'a.  Thence  the 
Persians  crossed  the  Euripus,  and,  by  the  advice  of  the  exiled  Hip'- 
pias, encamped  with  an  army  said  to  exceed  five  hundred  thousand 
men  on  the  plains  of  Mar'athon,  within  ten    miles  of  Athens. 

The  Athenians  could  only  muster  an  army  often  thousand  citizens,  and 
about  double  that  number  of  slaves,  who  were  armed  in  this  extremity. 
The  little  city  of  Platoe'a  sent  an  auxiliary  force  of  a  thousand  men ; 
but  the  Spartans,  yielding  either  to  superstition  or  jealousy,  refused  to 
send  their  promised  aid  before  the  full  of  the  moon.  Miltiades  dis- 
suaded his  countrymen  from  standing  a  siege,  because  the  immense 
host  of  the  Persians  could  completely  blockade  the  city,  and  reduce  it 
by  starvation.  He  led  the  army  to  Mar'athon  ;  but  when  the  Persian 
hosts  were  in  sight,  five  of  the  ten  generals,  commanding  jointly  with 
himself,  were  afraid  to  hazard  a  battle  ;  and  it  was  not  without  difficulty 
that  Callim'achus  was  prevailed  upon  to  give  his  casting  vote  in  favor 
of  fighting.  But  when  the  bold  resolution  of  engaging  was  adopted, 
all  the  generals  exerted  themselves  to  forward  the  wise  plans  of  their 
leader  (b.  c.  490). 

Miltiades  formed  his  lines  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  that  protected  his  rear 
and  right  flank ;  his  left  was  secured  by  an  extensive  marsh,  and  his 
front  protected  by  trunks  of  trees,  strevra  for  some  distance,  to  break 
the  force  of  the  Persian  cavalry.  The  Athenian  citizens  occupied  the 
right  wing,  the  Platajans  the  left,  while  the  raw  levies  of  slavea 
were  stationed  in  the  centre.  Datis  saw  the  advantages  of  this 
position ;  but  confident  in  his  superior  numbers,  he  gave  the  signal  for 
battle.  The  Greek  centre  was  broken  at  the  moment  that  the  two 
wings  had  routed  the  divisions  opposed  to  them  :  this  had  been  fore- 
eeen ;  and  Miltiades  directed  the  victorious  wings  to  attack  the  Per- 
sians rushing  incautiously  through  the  broken  centre  on  both  flanks. 
Surprise  is  fatal  to  an  oriental  army ;  in  a  few  minutes  the  Asiatics 


110  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

were  wholly  routed,  and  fled  in  confusion  to  their  ships.  The  Greeks 
pursued  them  vigorously,  and  destroyed  seven  of  their  vessels.  But  the 
Persian  fleet  was  still  powerful,  and  its  commanders  deemed  it  possible 
to  suprise  Athens  before  the  army  could  return.  Miltiades,  however, 
baffled  this  attempt  by  rapidly  marching  from  the  field  of  battle  to  the 
city,  and  securing  the  posts  before  the  hostile  navy  could  get  round  the 
promontory  of  Sunium.  Thus  disappointed,  the  Persians  took  advan- 
taae  of  a  favorable  crale,  and  returned  to  Asia. 

Miltiades  was  subsequently  accused  of  having  taken  a  bribe,  con- 
victed on  rather  doubtful  evidence,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine 
which  not  being  able  to  pay,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  ?  e 
died  of  his  wounds. 

Themis'tocles,  the  most  able  statesman,  and  Aristides,  the  most 
uncorrupt  patriot  of  Greece,  for  a  time  shared  the  power  that  had  been 
previously  possessed  by  Miltiades.  Their  struggle  for  power  ended 
in  the  banishment  of  Aristides ;  but  when  his  wise  counsels  were 
required  in  the  hour  of  emergency,  he  was  recalled  on  the  n.otion  of 
his  successful  rival.  Themis'tocles  directed  all  his  efforts  to  improving 
the  naval  power  of  Athens,  and  he  succeeded  in  securing  for  his 
country  the  complete  supremacy  of  the  Grecian  seas. 

In  the  interval  between  the  two  Persian  wars  nothing  remarkable 
occurred  in  any  other  of  the  Grecian  states,  save  that  in  Spar'ta,  one 
of  ity  'dngs,  Demaratus,  was  deposed  and  driven  into  exile  by  the  in- 
trigues of  the  other,  Cleoni'enes.  Demaratus  sought  refuge  in  the 
court  of  Persia ;  Cleom'enes  perished  by  his  own  hand,  a  victim  to 
remorse.     Leoty'chides  succeeded  the  former,  Leon'idas  the  latter. 

Section  II. —  The  Second  Persian  War. 
FROM   B.  c.  480  TO   B.  c.  449. 

Nine  years  after  the  battle  of  Mar'athon,  Xer'xes,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Darius,  resolved  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Greece,  and  for 
this  purpose  collected  an  army,  which,  after  making  every  allowance 
for  the  exaggerations  of  historians,  appears  to  have  been  the  most 
numerous  ever  assembled.  When  he  reached  the  pass  of  Thermop- 
ylae, through  which  lay  the  road  from  Thessaly  to  Greece,  he  found  a 
body  of  eight  thousand  men,  commanded  by  the  Spartan  Leon'idas, 
prepared  ro  dispute  the  passage.  The  haughty  Persian  instantly  sent 
a  herald,  com.^anding  these  warriors  to  surrender  their  arms,  and  was 
maddened  by  the  contumelious  reply,  "  Come  and  take  them." 

After  many  inefiectual  eflx)rts  to  break  the  Grecian  lines,  all  of 
which  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter,  Xer'xes  was  on  the  point 
of  retiring  in  despair,  when  the  treachery  of  Ephial'tes,  a  Trachinian 
deserter,  revealed  to  him  a  path  leading  to  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
that  secured  the  Grecian  flank.  Leon'idas  advised  his  allies  to  retire, 
declaring  that  he  and  his  Spartans  were  forbidden  by  law  to  abandon 
their  posts.  Retaining  with  him  only  a  thousand  men,  he  resolved  to 
attack  the  Persian  camp  by  night,  hoping  in  the  confusion  and  darkness 
to  reach  the  royal  tent,  and,  by  the  slaughter  or  capture  of  Xer'xes,  to 
put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  plan  had  nearly  succeeded  when  morning 
dawned  on  the  assailants,  wearied  with  slaughter ;  they  then  retreated 


GREECE  11 

to  the  upper  part  of  the  pass,  ■\vhcre  they  were  soon  surrounded  by 
muhitudes ;  but  ttiey  still  lought  with  all  the  energies  of  despair,  until 
they  sunk,  fatigued  rather  than  vanquished. 

About  the  same  time  the  Greeks  obtained  a  victory  over  the  Persian 
fleet  off  the  headland  of  Artemis'iuni,  in  the  island  of  Euboe'a ;  but 
this  triumph  was  rendered  fruitless  by  the  loss  of  the  pass  of  Ther- 
rr\6pyl<E  ;  and  Themis'tocles  persuaded  the  allies  to  remove  the  navy 
in<o  the  Saronic  gulf,  where  they  anchored  off  the  island  of  Sal'amis. 

Xer'xes,  having  entered  Phocis,  divided  his  army,  sending  a  large 
detachment  to  plunder  and  destroy  the  temple  of  Del'phi.  They  were 
attacked  by  the  Phocians,  and  hewn  down  almost  without  resistance. 
A  miserable  remnant  escaped  to  Xer'xes,  who,  having  destroyed  Thes'- 
piae  and  Platae'ai,  was  rapidly  advancing  against  Athens.  On  his 
approach,  the  Athenians,  by  the  persuasion  of  Themis'tocles,  abandoned 
their  beloved  city ;  those  capable  of  bearing  arms  retired  to  the  island 
of  Sal'amis,  while  those  whom  age  or  sex  rendered  unfit  for  war, 
found  shelter  in  the  hospitable  city  of  Trcezene.  Athens  was  burned 
to  the  ground ;  and  Xer'xes,  in  the  pride  of  success,  resolved  to  anni- 
hilate the  last  hopes  of  Greece  in  a  naval  engagement. 

Eurybiades,  the  Spartan,  who  commanded  the  allied  fleet,  was 
induced  by  Themis'tocles  to  adopt  the  plan  of  hazarding  an  engage- 
ment. Fearing,  however,  some  change,  the  crafty  Athenian  sent  a 
spy,  as  a  pretended  deserter,  to  Xer'xes,  informing  him  that  the  Greeks 
were  preparing  to  disperse  and  escape  ;  upon  which  the  whole  Persian 
navy  Avas  sent  to  blockade  the  harbor  of  Sal'amis.  Themis'tocles 
learned  the  success  of  his  stratagem  from  Aristides,  who  crossed  over 
from  iEgina  in  a  small  bo?,t  with  the  intelligence ;  a  circumstance  that 
at  once  put  an  end  to  the  rivalry  between  these  great  men. 

Xer'xes  witnessed  the  battle  of  Sal'amis  from  ^Egaleos,  a  rocky 
eminence  on  the  coast  of  At'tica :  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his 
magnificent  navy  utterly  annihilated.  From  that  moment  Xer'xes 
resolved  to  return  into  Asia,  leaving  three  hundred  thousand  men  under 
Mardonius  to  prosecute  the  war.  When  he  reached  the  Hellespont, 
he  found  his  magnificent  bridge  broken  down,  and  he  was  forced  to 
cross  the  strait  in  a  common  fishing-boat. 

Mardonius  havmg  wintered  in  Thes'saly,  before  opening  the  next 
campaign,  sent  the  king  of  Macedon  as  an  ambassador  to  the  Atheni- 
ans, oll'ering  them  the  rebuilding  of  their  city,  and  the  friendship  of  his 
master,  on  condition  of  their  seceding  from  the  alliance.  These  offers 
were  rejected.  The  confederates  encamped  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Cithai'ron,  in  front  of  the  Persian  lines.  Several  skirmishes  took 
place,  in  all  of  which  the  Greeks  had  the  advantage ;  but  being  dis- 
tressed for  want  of  water,  they  broke  up  their  camp  to  seek  a  belter 
position. 

Mardonius,  believing  that  his  enemies  were  in  full  retreat,  ordered 
his  soldiers  to  pursue  the  fugitives  and  complete  the  victory.  A  battle 
ensued  not  far  from  the  city  of  Plataj'ae,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat 
of  the  Persians,  and  the  annihilation  of  their  army,  with  the  exception 
of  forty  thousand  that  escaped  to  the  Hellespont  under  Artabazua 
Two  hundred  thousand  of  the  barbarians  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  tliia 
memorable  battle,  and  the  value  of  the  plunder  found  in  the  Persiaa 


113  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

camp  exceeds  calculation.  On  the  very  same  day  (September  22d, 
B.  c.  479),  an  equally  important  victory  was  gained  by  the  confederate 
fleet,  commanded  by  the  Athenian  Xanthip'pus  and  the  Spartan  Leoty'- 
chides  at  Mycale,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Dreading  the  heroism 
of  the  Greeks,  the  Persians  had  drawn  their  ships  on  shore,  surrounded 
them  with  fortifications,  and  protected  them  with  an  army  of  sixty 
thousand  men.  The  allied  Greeks,  with  far  inferior  numbers,  landed 
their  troops,  stormed  the  works,  destroyed  the  navy,  and  put  the  greater 
part  of  the  Persians  to  the  sword.  The  plunder  taken  by  the  Greeks 
was  immense,  but  the  most  splendid  results  of  these  victories  were  the 
overthrow  of  the  Persian  power  in  the  ^gean  sea,  and  the  freedom 
of  the  islands.  It  is  probable  that  the  colonies  in  western  Asia  might 
have  regained  their  independence  if  they  desired  it ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lonians,  most  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  preferred  the 
tranquil  supremacy  of  Persia  to  an  alliance  with  the  Grecian  republics 

During  the  half  century  Avhich  foUov/ed  the  battle  of  Plata^'oc,  the 
Athenian  republic  attained  the  summit  of  its  greatness,  and  became  the 
first  state,  not  only  of  Greece,  but  of  the  civilized  world.  Themis'to- 
cles  rebuilt  the  defences  of  the  city,  fortified  the  harbor  of  the  Peiree'- 
us,  and  joined  it  to  Athens  by  what  were  called  "the  long  walls." 

In  the  meantime  the  Spartan  Pausanias,  at  the^  head  of  the  confed- 
erate Greeks,  continued  to  wage  war  against  the  dependancies  of  the 
Persian  empire  in  the  iEgean  sea  and  on  the  coast  of  Thrace.  By- 
zan'tium,  already  regarded  as  a  strong  and  flourishing  city,  was  taken 
after  a  short  siege  (b.  c.  470),  and  its  vast  wealth  became  the  prey  of 
the  conquerors.  Among  the  captives  were  many  distinguished  Persian 
noblemen,  and  even  relations  of  the  king,  who  paid  large  sums  to  re- 
deem them  fr^m  captivity.  But  this  sudden  influx  of  riches  proved  fa- 
tal to  Pausanias ;  he  resolved,  by  the  aid  of  the  Persians,  to  become 
supreme  master  of  Greece.  Secret  information  of  their  general's  trea- 
son was  conveyed  to  the  Spartan  senate ;  he  was  recalled,  and  brought 
to  trial  ;  but  escaped  the  first  time,  it  is  said,  by  bribing  his  judges. 
Fresh  evidence  being  obtained  against  him,  he  was  secretly  warned 
of  his  danger,  and  lied  for  safety  to  the  temple  of  Miner'va.  The  Spar- 
tans did  not  dare  to  drag  the  traitor  from  the  sanctuary ;  they  blocked 
up  the  door  of  the  temple  with  huge  stones,  stripped  off  its  roof,  strictly 
guarded  all  its  avenues,  and  left  the  wretch  to  perish  by  cold  and  hun- 
ger. In  consequence  of  the  tyranny  of  Pausanias,  the  Spartans  v/ere 
deprived  of  the  supremacy  by  sea,  and  the  Athenians  were  chosen  to 
lead  the  naval  confederacy  of  the  islands  and  colonies.  Aristides  was 
elected  treasurer  of  the  allies,  and  to  prevent  any  complaints,  he  se- 
lected the  island  of  Delos  as  the  point  of  reunion,  and  the  sanctuary 
where  their  contributions  should  be  deposited  under  the  protection  of 
Apol'lo. 

Themis'tocles,  by  the  artifice  of  the  Spartans,  was  involved  in  the 
fate  of  Pausanias  :  he  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with  the  plot, 
but  he  strenuously  denied  that  it  had  ever  received  his  sanction.  He 
was  banished  by  ostracism  for  ten  years  ;  but  the  malice  of  his  enemies 
pursued  him  in  his  exile,  and,  to  save  his  life,  he  was  forced  to  seek 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Persia.  He  soon  however  ended  his  life  by 
poison.     Nearly  at  the  same  time  Aristides  died  full  of  years  and  hon- 


GREECE.  113 

OTS,  Laving  administered  the  public  finances  with  so  much  integrity, 
that  he  did  not  leave  behind  him  a  sum  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  his  funeral.  A  sum  was  issued  from  the  public  treasury  to  pay  for 
the  last  rites  to  his  corpse,  to  complete  his  son's  education,  and  to  por- 
tion his  daughters. 

Cimon,  the  son  of  Milti'ades,  succeeded  Aristides  as  leader  of  the 
Athenian  republic  :  he  continued  the  war  against  the  Persians  with 
equal  vigor  and  skill,  reducing  all  their  cities  and  forts,  not  only  in 
Europe  and  the  islands,  but  even  on  the  coast  of  Asia.  At  length  he 
completely  destroyed  the  Avhole  Persian  navy  off  the  coast  of  Cy'prus 
(b.  c.  466),  and  then  dressing  his  men  in  the  vestures  and  arms  of  his 
prisoners,  surprised  the  Persian  camp  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurym'- 
edon  on  the  very  same  day,  and  before  the  barbarians  could  recover 
from  their  confusion,  completed  their  destruction.  The  war  continued 
twenty-one  years,  during  which  the  naval  power  and  commercial  wealth 
of  the  Athenians  were  continually  increasing  ;  both  sides  at  length  began 
to  entertain  thoughts  of  peace.  The  articles  were  soon  arranged,  and 
they  were  worthy  of  the  valor  that  the  Greeks  had  shown  in  this  great 
struggle  (b.  c.  449).  It  was  stipulated  that  the  independence  of  the 
Greek  cities  in  lower  Asia  should  be  restored ;  that  no  Persian  i'essel 
should  appear  between  the  Cyanean  rocks  and  Chelidonian  islands,  that 
is,  between  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Thracian  Bos'phorus  and  the 
southern  promontory  of  Lycia  ;  that  no  Persian  army  should  come  with- 
in three  days'  journey  of  the  seacoast ;  and  that  the  Athenians  should 
withdraw  their  fleets  and  armies  from  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Thus 
gloriously  were  terminated  the  Persian  wars,  which,  reckoning  from  the 
burning  of  Sar'dis,  had  lasted,  with  little  intermission,  during  fifty-one 
years 

Section  III. — The  First  Peloponnesian  War. 
FROM   B.   C.    431    TO    B.    c.    422. 

While  the  Athenians  were  acquiring  wealth  and  glory  in  the  w...! 
against  Persia,  the  Spartans,  jealous  of  their  rival's  rising  fame,  were 
secretly  preparing  to  weaken  the  Athenian  power  by  a  sudden  war. 
But  their  animosity,  before  it  broke  into  action,  was  diverted  by  a  ca- 
lamity equally  great  and  unexpected.  Laconia  was  laid  waste  by  an 
earthquake,  which  destroyed  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  overwhelmed  the  city  of  Sparta  (b.  c.  469).  The  op- 
pressed Helots  and  the  remnant  of  the  Messenians  took  advantage  of 
this  calamity  to  make  a  vigorous  effort  for  the  recovery  of  their  free- 
dom ;  they  failed  in  surprising  Sparta ;  but  they  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  their  ancient  fortress  Ithome.  Though  aided  by  the  Atheni- 
ans, whose  assistance  they  repaid  with  ingratitude,  the  Spartans  had 
great  difficulty  in  subduing  the  insurgents,  and  were  finally  forced  to 
allow  them  to  retire  from  the  Peloponnesus  with  their  families  and 
properties.  These  exiles  were  hospitably  received  in  the  Athenian 
colony  of  Naupac'tus  ;  and  they  repaid  the  kindness  shown  to  them  by 
subsequently  adhering,  through  every  vicissitude  of  fortune,  to  the  cause 
of  Athens  The  Argives  had  declined  to  support  the  general  cause  of 
Greece   in  the  great  struggle  with  the  Persians ;  and  the  dependant 

8 


114  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

States,  despising  their  treachery,  had  thrown  off  obedience  to  the  cap- 
ital. Mycense  was  the  only  city  on  which  the  Argives  could  wreak 
their  ven<Teance  ;  the  rest,  supported  by  Spar'ta,  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence. From  similar  reasons,  Thebes  had  lost  her  supremacy  ovel 
the  BcBotian  cities ;  but  here  the  Athenians  embraced  the  cau.se  of  the 
minor  states,  while  Sparta  supported  the  sovereignty  of  the  Boeotian 
metropolis. 

Athens  had  now  attained  the  summit  of  its  greatness,  under  Jie  bril- 
liant administrations  of  Per'icles.  That  eminent  statesman,  though 
sprung  from  a  noble  house,  had  risen  to  power  by  warmly  supporting 
the  cause  of  the  people,  and  procured  the  banishment  of  his  rival 
Cimon,  on  account  of  his  partiality  to  Sparta.  To  secure  his  influence, 
Per'icles  weakened  the  power  of  the  great  aristocratic  court,  the 
Areop'agus,  by  removing  various  causes  from  its  jurisdiction  to  that  of 
the  popular  tribunals.  He  adorned  the  city  with  the  most  splendid 
monuments  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting ;  and  in  order  to 
defray  the  necessary  expenditure,  he  augmented  the  contributions  im- 
posed on  the  allied  states,  under  the  pretence  of  supporting  the  Persian 
war,  and  removed  the  treasury  of  the  confederates  from  Delos  to 
Athens.  Finding  that  the  Spartans  were  supporting  the  cause  of  the 
Theban  supremacy,  he  sent  an  army  to  maintain  the  independence  of 
Boeotia,  v,diich,  though  at  first  worsted  near  Tan'agra,  won  a  decisive 
victory  on  the  same  ground  in  the  following  year  (b.  c.  457).  A  fleet 
at  the  same  time  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  made  the 
Spartans  tremble  for  their  own  safety.  The  recall  of  Cimon,  and  the 
defeat  of  the  Athenians  in  an  enterprise  against  Thebes,  through  the 
rashness  of  their  leader  Tol'midas,  led  to  a  truce  for  five  years  (b.  c. 
450),  which  might  probably  have  led  to  a  permanent  peace,  but  for  tho 
death  of  Cimon  before  the  walls  of  Cit'ium.  The  close  of  the  truce 
led  to  a  brief  renewal  of  war;  but  a  second  truce  was  concluded  foj 
fifty  years,  which  gave  Per'icles  time  to  mature  his  favorite  policy  of 
making  Athens  mistress  of  the  maritime  and  insular  states.  Some  of 
the  islands  revolted,  but  they  were  successively  subdued  ;  and  the  sub 
jugation  of  Samos,  the  chief  city  in  the  island  of  that  name,  gave  Per'- 
icles the  fame  of  a  military  leader  as  well  as  a  statesman.  About  the 
same  time  he  completed  the  overthrow  of  the  aristocratic  party,  by  pro- 
curing the  banishment  of  its  leader,  the  elder  Thucyd'ides ;  and  se- 
cured the  popular  favor  by  his  unrivalled  shows  and  theatrical  exhibi- 
tions. The  brilliancy  of  Athens,  however,  provoked  a  host  of  secret 
enemies,  especially  in  the  Peloponnesus,  who  only  waited  an  opportu- 
nity of  combining  for  her  destruction. 

Athens  now  formed  the  metropolis  of  an  extensive  territory  wliicli 
some  of  the  ancients  have  denominated  a  kingdom.  In  that  narrow 
space  of  time  which  intervened  between  the  battle  of  Mycale  and  the 
memorable  war  of  Peloponnesus,  Athens  had  established  her  authority 
over  an  extent  of  more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  the  Asiatic  coast,  from 
Cyprus  to  the  Thracian  Bos'phorus  ;  taken  possession  of  forty  inter- 
mediate islands,  together  with  the  important  straits  which  join  the 
Euxine  and  the  ^Egean ;  conquered  and  colonized  the  winding  shorea 
9f  Thrace  and  Macedon ;  commanded  the  coast  of  the  Euxine  from 
Pon'tus  to  the  Tauric  Chersonese  ;  and  overawing  the  barbarous   na- 


GREECE. 


115 


tives  by  the  experienced  terrors  of  her  fleet,  at  the  same  time  rendered 
subservient  to  her  own  interests  the  colonies  which  Miletus  and  other 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  had  established  in  those  remote  regions.  Thus 
the  Athenian  galleys  commanded  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  their  merchantmen  had  engrossed  the  traffic  of  the  adjacent 
countries  ;  the  magazines  of  Athens  abounded  with  wood,  metal,  ebony, 
ivory,  and  all  the  materials  of  the  useful  as  well  as  the  agreeable  arts ; 
they  imported  the  luxuries  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Cyprus,  Lyd'ia,  Pon'tus, 
and  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  circumstances  that  gave  rise  to  the  first  Peloponnesian  war 
originated  in  the  unsettled  state  of  colonial  relations  among  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Corcy'ra,  originally  a  Corinthian  colony,  had  risen  so  rapidly 
in  wealth  and  power,  that  it  more  than  rivalled  the  parent  state,  and 
possessed  many  flourishing  colonies  of  its  own,  among  which  one  of 
the  most  important  was  Epidam'nus,  called  in  Roman  history  Dyrac'- 
chium  {Diirazzo),  on  the  western  coast  of  Macedonia.  The  people  of 
Epidam'nus,  pressed  by  their  barbarous  neighbors,  sought  aid  from  the 
Corcyreans ;  but  finding  their  request  unheeded,  they  applied  to  the 
Corinthians,  who  readily  sent  an  armament  to  their  assistance  (b.  c. 
436).  Nothing  could  exceed  the  rage  of  the  Corcyreans  when  they 
received  this  intelligence  ;  a  fleet  was  instantly  sent  to  the  harbor,  and 
its  citizens  were  haughtily  commanded  to  dismiss  the  Corinthians,  and 
receive  a  Corcyrean  garrison.  This  mandate  was  spurned  with  con- 
tempt, and  Epidam'nus  was  immediately  besieged.  The  Corinthians 
sent  a  powerful  navy  to  raise  the  siege  ;  but  they  were  encountered  by 
the  Corcyreans  in  the  Ambracian  gulf,  and  completely  defeated.  Epi- 
dam'nus immediately  surrendered  ;  contrary,  however,  to  the  general 
expectation,  its  inhabitants  were  treated  with  great  leniency.  But  the 
haughty  islanders  abused  their  victory  by  ravaging  the  territories  of  the 
states  that  had  assisted  Corinth,  and  provoked  universal  indignation  by 
burning  the  city  of  Cyllene,  on  the  sacred  coast  of  E'hs.  Both  powers 
'  applied  to  Athens,  as  the  head  of  the  maritime  states,  to  decide  their 
quarrel.  By  the  advice  of  Per'icles,  a  defensive  alliance  was  concluded 
with  the  Corcyreans,  and  a  fleet  sent  to  their  aid,  which  fortunately  ar- 
rived at  the  moment  when  the  Corinthian  navy,  having  obtained  a  de- 
cisive victory,  seriously  menaced  the  island.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
Athenians,  the  Corinthians  retired ;  but  as  they  returned,  they  sur- 
prised the  garrison  of  Anactorium,  on  the  coast  of  Epirus,  which  en- 
abled them  to  bring  home  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  Corcyrean  prison- 
ers. The  fatal  effects  produced  by  this  capture  will  soon  demand  our 
attention. 

Potidae'a,  a  Corinthian  colony  on  the  Macedonian  coast,  which  ha(f 
been  for  some  time  subject  to  Athens,  revolted  during  the  Corcyrean  war, 
and  was  instantly  besieged.  The  Potidaj'ans  sought  aid  from  their  ancient 
parent ;  and  the  Corinthians,  too  weak  to  aflford  efficient  protection,  be- 
sought the  assistance  of  the  Spartans.  About  the  same  time,  ambas- 
sador- arrived  from  the  city  of  Meg'ara,  complaining  that  they  had 
been,  by  an  unjust  decree,  excluded  from  the  ports  and  harbors  of 
At'tica,  soliciting  the  Spartans,  as  heads  of  the  Dorian  race,  to  procure 
a  reversal  of  so  unjust  a  law ;  and  emissaries  came  from  ^g:jna  to 
represent  the  miserable  condition  to  which  that  island  had  been  reduced 


116  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

by  Athenian  oppression.  After  some  affected  delay,  the  Spartans  re« 
solved  that  the  Athenians  had  violated  the  principles  of  justice,  and 
should  be  coerced  to  redress  the  injuries  they  had  inflicted  ;  but  to  give 
their  proceedings  an  appearance  of  moderation,  it  was  resolved  to  send 
ambassadors  to  Athens  v;^ith  demands  which  they  knew  well  would  be 
refused.  They  required  that  the  siege  of  Potidee'a  should  be  raised, 
the  decree  against  Meg'ara  repealed,  the  island  of  iEgina  abandoned, 
the  independence  of  the  maritime  states  respected,  and  the  descendants 
of  Cy'lon's  murderers  banished.  This  last  demand  was  levelled  at 
Per'icles,  whose  maternal  ancestor  had  headed  the  aristocratic  party 
when  that  sacrilegious  murder  was  committed ;  and  it  was  urgej  at  a 
favorable  moment,  when  Per'icles  was  suspected  of  impiety  on  account 
of  his  protecting  the  philosopher  Anaxag'oras. 

But  the  haughtiness  with  which  the  Spartan  ambassadors  urged  their 
injurious  demands  roused  the  fiery  spirit  of  the  Athenian  people,  and  it 
required  all  the  influence  of  Per'icles  to  induce  them  to  couch  their  re- 
fusal in  temperate  and  dignified  language.  While  the  declaration  of 
war  was  yet  withheld  intelligence  arrived  at  Spar'ta  of  the  Thebans 
having  been  foiled  in  an  attempt  to  surprise  Platre'se,  and  that  their  de- 
feat was  owing  to  the  instigation  and  aid  of  the  Athenians  (b.  c.  431). 
War  was  instantly  proclaimed,  and  the  Spartan  king  Archida'mus 
elected  chief  of  the  Peloponnesian  confederates. 

Athens,  supported  by  the  insular  and  maritime  states,  was  supreme 
mistress  of  the  sea  ;  Spar'ta,  on  the  other  hand,  was  joined  by  the  chief 
powers  on  the  Grecian  continent,  and  was  consequently  superior  by 
land.  Both  began  the  war  by  displaying  their  strength  on  their  own 
peculiar  element :  a  Spartan  army  ravaged  At'tica,  an  Athenian  fleet 
plundered  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Spartans  were  thus 
forced  to  return  home  to  the  defence  of  their  own  country ;  and  no 
sooner  had  they  withdrawn,  than  Per'icles  invaded  Meg'ans,  and  laid 
the  whole  of  its  narrow  territory  desolate.  Early  in  the  next  summer 
the  Peloponnesians  again  invaded  At'tica  ;  but  the  Athenians  were 
assailed  by  a  more  dreadful  calamity — a  plague  of  unparalleled  viru- 
lence had  been  introduced  into  the  Pirse'ajus  Irom  Asia,  and  it  raged 
fiercely  in  a  city  crowded  by  the  peasants  v/ho  had  sought  refuge  within 
the  walls  on  the  approach  of  the  Spartans.  At  length,  two  years  and 
six  months  after  the  commencement  of  the  war,  Per'icles  himself  fell  a 
victim  to  the  pestilence  (b.  c.  429).  His  death-bed  was  surrounded  by 
his  friends  and  admirers,  who  recited  the  many  illustrious  exploits  of  his 
glorious  life.  "  You  forget,"  said  the  dymg  patriot,  "  you  forget  the  only 
valuable  part  of  my  character  ;  none  of  my  fellow-citizens  was  ever  com- 
pelled by  any  action  of  mine  to  assume  a  mourning  robe." 

The  war  was  supported  by  mutual  ravages,  and  the  success  of  the 
contending  parties  nicely  balanced.  Potidae'a  surrenderd  to  the  Athe- 
nians, its  inhabitants  were  banished,  and  their  place  supplied  by  fresh 
colonists  ;  Platse'ffi,  after  a  brave  and  protracted  defence  of  five  years, 
was  yielded  to  the  Spartans,  and  the  whole  garrison  was  mercilessly 
butchered  (b.  c.  427).  In  the  same  year  that  the  Spartans  had  stained 
their  national  character  by  the  atrocious  massacre  of  the  Plataeans,  the 
Athenians  narrowly  escaped  being  disgraced  by  a  similar  atrocity.  Thff 
Lesbians  of  Mitylene  had  revolted,  and  sought  the  assistance  of  th» 


GREECE.  117 

Peloponnesians,  but  the  tardy  and  selfish  policy  of  Lacedse'mon  delayed 
the  succors  until  the  insurgents  were  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion. 
When  the  fate  of  Mitylene  was  discussed  in  the  Athenian  assembly,  the 
populace,  instigated  by  Cleon,  a  vulgar  demagogue,  decreed  that  the 
city  should  be  destroyed,  and  the  male  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword. 
But  night  brought  better  counsels  ;  a  general  feeling  of  pity  and  regret 
spread  among  the  people  ;  and  on  the  following  day  the  sanguinary 
decree  was  revoked,  and  a  fast-sailing  vessel  sent  to  prevent  its  execu- 
tion. The  messengers  of  mercy  made  such  speed,  that  they  entered 
the  harbor  of  Mitylene  a  few  hours  after  the  preceding  boat,  and  thus 
saved  Les'bos  from  desolation. 

The  Spartan  admiral,  having  failed  to  succor  Les'bos,  sailed  against 
Corcy'ra,  then  agitated  by  the  tumults  of  a  most  dangerous  sedition.  It 
has  been  already  mentioned,  that  many  Corcyreans  had  been  made 
prisoners  by  the  Corinthians  ;  these  men  were  won  by  the  kindness  and 
bribes  of  their  captors  to  aid  the  aristocratic  party  of  their  countrymen 
in  an  attempt  to  subvert  the  democratic  constitution  of  Corcy'ra,  and 
break  off  the  alliance  with  Athens.  On  their  return  home,  they  made 
a  vigorous  effort  to  accomplish  their  designs,  and  very  nearly  succeed- 
ed. After  a  violent  and  sanguinary  contest,  in  which  both  parties  were 
disgraced  by  the  most  savage  atrocities,  the  democratic  faction  prevailed 
by  the  aid  of  an  Athenian  fleet,  but  sullied  its  triumph  by  exterminating 
all  its  opponents,  under  circumstances  of  equal  treachery  and  cruelty. 

The  presence  of  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the  Ionian  sea  rendered  west- 
ern Greece  the  scene  of  war  ;  and  Demos'thenes,  its  chief  commander, 
subdued  all  the  allies  of  the  Peloponnesians  in  iEtolia  and  Epirus. 
The  term  of  his  command  having  expired  (b.  c.  425),  he  was  returning 
home,  when  the  Messenians  wno  served  in  his  fleet  proposed  to  effect 
a  landing  in  the  harbor  of  Py'lus  [Navarino),  and,  fortifying  themselves 
there,  make  the  Spartans  tremble  in  their  own  capital,  which  was  only 
fifty  miles  distant.  The  bold  design  was  accomplished  ;  and  the  Spar- 
tans in  alarm  sent  a  fleet  and  army  to  besiege  Py'lus ;  they  garrisoned 
the  little  island  of  Sphacteria  ;  but  their  navy  being  defeated  by  the 
Athenians,  this  garrison,  consisting  of  the  noblest  of  the  Spartan  fami- 
lies, was  brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  and  would  have  been  utterly 
destroyed,  but  for  the  inadequate  resources  which  Demos'thenes  had  at 
his  command.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  Spartans  sent  deputies 
to  solicit  peace  ;  but  the  Athenian  people,  instigated  by  their  unworthy 
favorite  Cleon  rejected  the  proffer  with  disdain.  This  arrogant  boaster, 
whose  cowardice  was  notorious,  offered,  if  he  were  made  general,  that 
he  would  make  the  Spartans  in  Sphacteria  prisoners  within  twenty 
ilays.  He  had  no  notion  that  his  offer  would  be  accepted ;  but  the 
Athenian  populace,  ready  at  all  times  to  sacrifice  everything  for  a  joke, 
took  him  at  his  word.  Cleon  sailed  to  the  scene  of  war,  and  was 
enabled,  by  an  accidental  fire,  which  destroyed  the  Spartan  fortifica- 
tions, to  accomplish  his  promise.  This  success  was  followed  by  the 
capture  of  the  island  of  Cythera,  the  destruction  of  the  Megarean 
harbor  Nicae'a  and  of  several  seaports  on  the  coast  of  the  Peleponncsus, 
But  these  triumphs  were  counterbalanced  by  the  defeat  of  the  Atheni- 
ans at  Delimn,  the  revolt  of  their  northern  colonics,  and  the  commence 
ment  of  hostilities  against  them  by  Perdic'cas,  king  of  Macedon.     Tha 


118  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Spartans,  roused  to  vigor  by  this  unexpected  turn  of  events,  sent  an 
army  under  Bras'idas,  their  ablest  general,  through  norlheri.  Greece,  to 
aid  the  revolted  colonies  ;  and  this  eminent  leader  soon  deprived  ttie 
Athenians  of  their  principal  cities  in  Thrace  and  Macedon.  Cleon 
headed  an  Athenian  army  sent  to  retrieve  these  losses  ;  he  was  defeat- 
ed and  slain  ;  but  the  Spartan  victory  was  deprived  of  all  its  fruits  by 
the  death  of  Bras'idas,  who  incautiously  exposed  himself,  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded  (b.  c.  422).  , 

Sparta  had  no  general  fit  to  succeed  Bras'idas,  and  the  senate  was 
anxious  to  recover  the  prisoners  taken  in  Sphacteria  ;  the  Athenians 
were  equally  eager  to  procure  the  restitution  of  their  northern  colonies  ; 
and  Nic'ias,  who  had  succeeded  Cleon,  was  naturally  of  a  pacific  dis- 
position. These  favorable  circumstances  led  to  the  conclusion  of  a 
peace,  or  rather  truce,  for  fifty  years,  on  the  basis  of  mutual  restitution, 
by  which  Sparta  wantonly  sacrificed  the  interests  of  her  allies. 

Section  IV. —  Tlic  Second  Pdoponnesian  War. 

FROM  B.   C.   421    TO  B.   C.  404. 

Justly  provoked  by  the  neglect  of  their  interests  in  the  recent  treaty 
the  Corinthians  privately  instigated  the  Argives  against  the  Spartans ; 
and  a  combination  was  formed  by  the  principal  democratic  states, 
which  was  secretly  encouraged  by  the  Athenians.  The  sudden  depar- 
ture from  pacific  policy  was  owing  to  the  influence  of  Alcibiades,  the 
nephew  of  Per'icles,  who,  to  a  large  share  of  his  uncle's  abilities, 
added  a  boundless  ambition,  and  a  reckless  disregard  of  the  means  he 
used  to  accomplish  his  ends.  The  Argives  and  Spartans,  after  having 
harassed  each  other  by  petty  expeditions,  at  length  prepared  for  open 
war ;  but  just  as  the  two  armies  were  on  the  point  of  engaging,  the 
remembrance  that  they  were  both  descended  from  the  Dorian  race  sus- 
pended their  rage,  and  a  truce  was  concluded  between  their  respective 
leaders.  Alcibiades,  who  was  then  ambassador  at  Ar'gos,  roused  the 
populace  to  refuse  the  ratification  of  this  agreement ;  a  fresh  attack  was 
made  on  the  Spartan  allies,  but  it  proved  unsuccessful.  Two  years  of 
mutual  recrimination  followed ;  during  which  the  Argive  republic  was 
harassed  by  sanguinary  revolutions,  which  ended  in  the  complete 
establishment  of  a  democracy.  In  the  meantime,  the  Athenians, 
anxious  to  restore  their  naval  supremacy,  attacked  the  Dorian  island  of 
Melos,  and  punished  the  resistance  of  the  inhabitants  by  a  cruel  massacre, 
which  provoked  universal  indignation  throughout  Greece.  But  public 
attention  was  soon  engrossed  by  a  more  important  topic,  the  Athenian 
expedition  to  Sicily,  undertaken  at  the  instigation  of  Alcibiades  (b.  c 
415),  nominally  to  deliver  the  Egestans  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Syra- 
cusans,  but  really  to  establish  the  Athenian  supremacy  in  that  island. 

Notwithstanding  the  remonstrances  of  Nic'ias  and  Soc'rates,  the  mos: 
powerful  armament  which  had  ever  left  a  Grecian  port  was  speedily 
prepared,  and  intrusted  to  the  just  command  of  Alcibiades,  Nic'ias,  and 
Lam'achus.  When  reviewed  at  Corcy'ra,  it  was  found  to  consist  of  a 
hundred  and  thirty-four  ships-of-war,  with  a  proportional  numlier  of 
transports  and  tciiaers.     T'he   army  was   composed  of  five    thousand 


GREECE.  119 

heavy-armed  infantry,  accompanied  by  a  sufficient  body  of  slingers  and 
archers.  Instead,  however,  of  sailing  directly  to  SjTacuse,  which  prob- 
ably would  have  fallen,  the  fleet  was  steered  to  Cat'ana,  whose  inhab- 
itants were  induced  to  join  the  Athenians  by  the  brilliant  eloquence  of 
Alcibiades.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he  obtained  this  triumph,  whoa  he 
was  summoned  home  to  be  tried  for  his  life  on  a  charge  of  impiety  and 
sacrilege. 

He  was  accused  of  having  violated  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  and 
wantonly  defaced  the  Her'maj,  or  sacred  statues  of  Mercury,  which 
adorned  the  streets  of  Athens.  Conscious  of  his  gixilt,  or  dreading  the 
giddy  populace,  he  refused  to  incur  the  hazard  of  a  trial,  but  fled  to 
Thurium,  whence  he  removed  to  Ar'gos,  and  afterward,  when  a  price 
was  set  on  his  head,  to  Spar'ta.  Nic'ias,  by  the  departure  of  Alcibiades, 
and  death  of  Lam'achus,  remained  sole  commander  of  the  Athenian 
forces :  he  was  an  able  but  cautious  leader,  and  after  he  had  defeated 
the  Syracusans,  he  wasted  precious  time  in  fortifying  his  camp  and 
useless  negotiations.  The  Corinthians  and  Spartans  profited  by  the 
delay  to  send  succors  to  Syracuse,  which  they  intrusted  to  Gylip'pus, 
the  best  general  of  his  day.  Under  his  command  the  fortune  of  the  war 
soon  changed ;  and  the  Athenians,  so  far  from  making  any  impression 
on  Syracuse,  were  severely  defeated,  and  besieged  in  their  camp.  At 
the  request  of  Nic'ias,  a  new  armament  was  sent  to  Sicily,  under  the 
command  of  Demos'thenes  and  Eurym'edon ;  but  through  the  dilatory 
policy  of  the  old  general,  and  the  rashness  of  his  colleagues,  this  rein- 
forcement was  rendered  unavailing,  and  the  Athenians  were  defeated  in 
a  decisive  engagement.  Demos'thenes  now  proposed  to  return  ;  but 
Nic'ias  lingered  in  Sicily  after  all  rational  hopes  of  success  were  lost, 
and  the  Syracusans,  in  the  meantime,  collecting  a  powerful  navy,  de- 
stroyed the  Athenian  fleet,  and  became  masters  of  the  sea.  An  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Athenians  to  retreat  to  some  friendly  city ;  but  they 
were  overtaken  by  the  Syracusan  army,  and  forced  to  surrender  at  dis- 
cretion (b.  c.  413).  The  generals  were  barbarously  put  to  death,  and 
the  common  soldiers  sold  as  slaves. 

This  terrible  calamity  was  fatal  to  the  power  of  Athens  ;  b  it  it  Avas 
not  the  only  misfortune  that  befell  the  republic.  Acting  tu.Jcr  the 
revengeful  advice  of  Alcibiades,  the  Spartans  fortified  and  garrisoned 
Deceleia,  a  town  not  fifteen  miles  from  Athens,  and  commanding  its 
richest  lands  ;  and  thus,  instead  of  harassing  their  enemies  by  annual 
incursions,  they  infested  them  by  a  continual  Avar.  Soon  afterward 
they  learned  that  the  Avealth  of  Persia  Avas  added  to  the  formidable 
confederacy  of  the  Spartans. 

But  under  all  these  misfortunes  the  Athenians  maintained  their 
national  courage,  and  prepared  to  meet  the  crisis  Avith  enthusiasm. 
Their  most  pressing  danger  arose  from  the  discontent  of  the  maritime 
states,  Avhose  desire  of  independence  was  stimulated  by  the  presence 
of  a  superior  Spartan  fleet  in  the  iEgean  sea.  The  ruin  of  the  Athe- 
nians Avas,  however,  suspended  by  the  negotiations  of  Alcibiades  with 
the  Persian  satrap  Tissapher'nes ;  for  this  ambitious  man,  having  pro- 
voked the  resentment  of  the  Spartans  by  his  vices,  Avas  noAv  eager  to 
be  reconciled  to  his  native  country.  His  intrigues  procured  the  abo- 
lition of  the  Athenian  democracy,  and  the  substitution  of  an  aristocratic 


!20  ANCIENT  mSTORi'. 

government;  but  the  new  heads  of  the  state  justly  dreaded  the  ambi- 
tion of  Alcibiades,  and  refused  to  repeal  the  sentence  pronounced 
against  him.  The  four  hundred  tyrants,  as  the  aristocratic  usurpers 
'were  justly  called,  alienated  the  minds  even  of  their  partisans  by  their 
cruelty  and  incapacity.  At  length  the  revolt  of  Euboe'a,  and  the 
destruction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  near  Eretria,  provoked  a  fierce  insur- 
rection :  they  w^ere  deposed,  and  thus,  at  the  end  of  four  months,  the 
democracy  was  restored.  Alcibiades  was  immediately  recalled ;  but 
he  resolved  not  to  return  home  until  his  return  should  be  gilded  by 
the  fame  of  some  great  exploit.  He  hastened,  with  a  small  squadron, 
to  aid  the  Athenian  fleet,  at  the  moment  it  had  joined  battle  »nth  the 
Spartans  ;  and  this  seasonable  reinforcement  decided  the  vl  jtory.  But 
Alcibiades,  eager  for  a  more  decisive  blow,  persuaded  his  countrymen 
to  attack  the  Spartans  in  the  harbor  of  Cyz'icus,  and  by  his  prudent 
arrangements  the  whole  hostile  fleet  was  either  taken  or  destroyed 
(B.C.  411).  This  great  victory  was  followed  by  the  re-establishment 
of  the  Athenian  ascendency  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus.  After  hav- 
ing performed  these  essential  services,  Alcibiades  returned  home 
(b.  c.  407),  and  was  welcomed  at  Athens  with  great  enthusiasm :  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  by  sea  and  land,  and  a  large  anna- 
ment  was  placed  at  his  disposal. 

But  v>dien  Alcibiades  returned  to  the  coast  of  Asia,  he  found  the 
cause  of  Sparta  retrieved  by  the  crafty  Lysan'der,  who  was  more  than 
his  equal  in  the  diplomatic  arts  of  duplicity  and  cunning.  The  Spartan 
had  the  art  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  Persian  prince  Cy'rus,  to 
whom  his  father  had  just  intrusted  the  government  of  lower  Asia ;  and 
by  the  simple  expedient  of  raising  the  pay  of  the  sailors  on  board  the 
confederate  fleets,  he  at  once  deprived  the  Athenians  of  their  most 
experienced  mariners.  Alcibiades  went  with  a  small  squadron  to  raise 
contributions  in  Caria :  during  his  absence,  Antiochus,  his  lieutenant, 
contrary  to  orders,  engaged  Lysan'der,  and  was  defeated  with  the  loss 
of  fifteen  ships.  Intelligence  of  this  event  being  conveyed  to  Athens, 
the  suspicions  of  the  treachery  of  Alcibiades,  which  had  been  only 
partially  lulled,  returned  in  full  force,  and  he  was  a  second  time  deposed 
and  banished.  He  fled  to  a  fortress  he  possessed  in  Thrace,  while  ten 
admirals  were  appointed  to  command  in  his  stead. 

Lysan'der's  year  of  oflice  having  expired,  he  was  succeeded  as 
admiral  of  the  Peloponnesiap.  fleet  by  Callicrat'idas,  a  man  as  inferior 
to  him  in  ability  as  he  was  superior  in  rectitude  and  integrity.  An 
engagement  between  the  fleets,  off"  the  islands  of  Arginusae,  ended  in 
the  total  defeat  of  the  Spar.ans ;  but  a  violent  storm  prevented  the 
Athenian  admirals  from  improving  their  victory,  and  from  recovering  the 
bodies  of  their  slain,  to  procure  them  the  rites  of  sepulture.  For  these 
imaginary  crimes,  they  were  accused  before  the  people  by  one  of  their 
colleagues,  denied  the  benefit  of  a  fair  trial,  condemned  by  clamor,  and 
put  to  death. 

The  war  for  a  time  languished,  but  the  reappointment  of  Lysan'der 
to  the  command  of  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  was  fatal  to  Athens,  whose 
best  officers  had  been  wantonly  sacrificed  to  gratify  the  fury  of  a  licen 
tious  populace.     Profiting  by  the  unskilfulness  and  presumption  of  the 
Athenian  admiral,  Lysan'der  attacked  them  unawares  at  the  mouth  of 


GREECE.  ■    121 

ehe  iEgos-pot'amos  (Goat's  river),  and  totally  annihilated  their  navy 
with  the  exception  of  eight  galleys,  which,  by  the  prudent  manage- 
ment of  Conon,  escaped  to  the  island  of  Cy'priis  (b.  c.  406).  Lysan'- 
der,  having  thus  virtually  put  an  end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  merci- 
lessly butchered  his  unfortunate  prisoners,  to  the  amount  of  three 
thousand. 

Before  sailing  against  Athens,  Lysan'der  reduced  the  principal  mar- 
itime states,  and  thus  prevented  the  import  of  grain  into  the  devoted 
city.  When  he  deemed  that  famine  had  sufficiently  prepared  the  way 
for  success,  he  appeared  before  the  harbor  with  a  fleet  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  sail,  while  A'gis,  the  king  of  Sparta,  attacked  the  city 
by  land. 

The  Athenians  made  an  obstinate  defence  ;  but  they  were  at  length 
forced  to  surrender,  on  the  humiliating  conditions  of  abolishing  the 
democracy,  and  intrusting  the  chief  power  to  thirty  persons  named  by 
the  Spartans,  surrendering  all  their  ships  but  twelve,  resigning  all  claim 
to  their  colonies  and  foreign  possessions,  and  consenting  to  follow  the 
Spartan  standard  in  war.  Harsh  as  were  these  conditions,  they  were 
mercy  compared  to  the  sanguinary  measures  proposed  by  the  Thebans 
and  Corinthians.  The  Athenians  submitted  in  bitter  sorrow.  On  the 
sixteenth  of  May  (b.  c.  404),  the  anniversary  of  the  memorable  victory 
of  Sal'amis,  the  harbors  and  forts  of  Athens  were  occupied  by  her  ene- 
mies, and  the  demolition  of  her  walls  commenced  amid  loud  shouts 
and  flourishes  of  martial  music :  while  her  citizens,  broken-hearted, 
hid  themselves  from  the  light  of  day. 

But  the  Spartans  did  not  believe  their  triumph  secure  while  Alcibi- 
ades  lived  to  reanimate  the  hopes  of  the  Athenians,  and  perhaps  pro- 
cure for  them  the  aid  of  the  Persians.  He  had  detected  the  hostile 
plans  of  Cy'rus  the  younger  against  his  brother  Artaxer'xes,  which 
the  crafty  Lysan'der  secretly  encouraged,  and  desired  to  be  escorted  to 
Susa,  in  order  to  reveal  the  plot  to  the  king.  Pharnabazus  dreaded  the 
consequence  of  such  a  discovery :  he  therefore  readily  listened  to  the 
suggestions  of  Lysan'der,  and  sent  a  body  of  assassins  to  murder  the 
illustrious  exile.  Alcibiades  was  living  in  a  Phrygian  village  uncon- 
scious of  his  danger.  Such  was  the  fame  of  his  valor,  that  the  mur- 
derers were  afraid  to  attack  him  openly,  and  set  fire  to  his  house.  The 
brave  Athenian  rushed  through  the  flames,  and  clove  down  the  foremost 
of  the  assassins,  but  the  rest  overwhelmed  him  with  showers  of  darts, 
and  he  fell  by  a  multitude  of  wounds.  The  Athenians  paid  an  involun- 
tary and  extraordinary  homage  to  his  talents,  for  they  at  once  abandoned 
themselves  to  despair,  and  made  no  effort  to  retrieve  the  hapless  condi- 
tion of  their  coimtry. 

Section  "V. —  Tyrannical  Rule  of  Sparta. —  Third  Peloponnesian   War. 
FROM    B.  C.  404   TO    B.  c.  36L 

The  confederates  had  destroyed  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  but  soon 
found  that  they  had  thereby  subjected  themselves  to  the  galling  tyranny 
of  the  Spartans.     Lysan'der  proved  to  be  the  worst  oppressor  that  had 


122  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ever  been  ra'sed  to  power ;  and  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  would  have 
gladlv  chosen  the  non-despotism  of  Pereia,  in  preference  to  his  avarice 
and  cruelty.  But,  to  secure  her  power,  Sparta  had  established  an  oli 
garchy  of  her  creatures  in  every  state,  and  supported  those  domestic 
tyrannies  with  arms  and  money.  The  power  of  the  thirty  tyrants  at 
Athens  was  secured  and  maintained  by  a  Spartan  garrison  in  the 
Acrop'oUs  :  thus  supported,  these  despots  set  no  bounds  to  their  cruelty 
and  rapacity,  putting  to  death  all  who  possessed  wealth  or  political 
influence,  and  enriching  themselves  by  confiscations. 

The  city  seemed  to  possess  only  two  classes  of  inhabitants,  the  ready 
instruments  of  cruelty  and  the  patient  victims  of  tyranny ;  three  tnou- 
sand  miscreants  were  found  to  act  as  a  bodyguard  to  the  tyrants  ;  all 
the  other  citizens  were  disarmed,  and  those  who  were  suspected  or  at- 
tached to  the  ancient  constitution,  were  either  murdered  or  driven  into 
exile.  The  dockyards  were  demolished  in  order  to  cripple  the  commer- 
cial enterprise  of  the  Athenians ;  the  beina,  or  pulpit  on  the  Pnyx,  was 
turned  to  the  land  side,  that  the  view  of  the  sea  might  not  awaken  glo- 
rious recollections,  or  revive  patriotic  emotions,  and  all  instruction  in 
oratory  was  strictly  prohibited. 

Although  the  Thebans  had  been  the  most  inveterate  enemies  of  the 
Athenians,  their  hearts  were  affected  by  witnessing  the  evils  brought 
upon  their  rivals  by  the  cruelty  of  the  tyrants,  and  they  received  with 
generous  kindness  those  who  fled  from  the  persecution  of  the  despots. 
A  numerous  band  of  exiles  was  soon  assembled  at  Thebes,  and  at  its 
head  was  placed  Thrasybu'lus,  Avhose  daring  valor  was  tempered  by 
prudence  and  humanity.  Under  his  guidance  the  exiles  seized  Phy'le, 
a  strong  fortress  on  the  frontiers  of  At'tica  and  Boeotia,  whence  they 
opened  a  communication  with  the  enemies  of  the  tyrants  in  the  city. 
Justly  terrified,  the  thirty  and  their  partisans  flew  to  arms,  but  they  suf- 
fered a  shameful  defeat ;  and  Thrasybu'lus,  strengthened  by  the  acces- 
sion of  new  partisans,  seized  the  Peirae'us.  The  aristocratic  faction,  in 
great  alarm,  deposed  the  thirty  and  elected  ten  new  magistrates  in  their 
stead,  who  emulated  the  wickedness  of  their  predecessors,  and,  to  se- 
cure their  power  sought  assistance  from  Sparta.  Lysan'der  quickly 
advanced  to  their  aid,  and  blockaded  the  Peirae'us  ;  but  his  pride  and 
ambition  had  given  deep  oflence  in  Sparta ;  and  Pausanias,  tlie  most 
popular  of  the  Lacedaemonian  princes,  hastily  marched  with  a  second 
army  to  frustrate  the  plans  of  Lysan'der.  Under  the  protection  of  Pau- 
sanias the  despots  were  stripped  of  power,  the  ancient  constitution  of 
Athens  restored,  and  the  Spartan  garrison  withdrawn  from  the  citadel 
(b.  c.  403).  Some  of  the  tyrants  retired  with  their  followers  to  Eleus'is  ; 
but  their  unequal  hostility  was  easily  defeated  by  the  vigor  of  the  new 
republic.  A  few  of  the  most  obnoxious  were  put  to  death :  the  rest 
were  pardoned  by  a  general  act  of  amnesty,  which  was  ratified  by  the 
people  on  the  motion  of  Thrasybu'lus. 

Scarcely  nad  the  constitution  been  restored,  when  the  Athenians  show- 
ed how  greatly  their  national  character  had  been  deteriorated,  by  corj- 
(iemning  the  virtuous  Soc'rates  to  death  on  a  frivolous  charge  of  impiety 
(b.  c.  400).  His  death  was  worthy  of  his  useful  and  honorable  life  ;  he 
subniit.ed  to  the  injustice  of  his  coimtrymen  without  murmuring  or  repi- 
uing,  and  spent  his  last  momenis  in  impressing  on  the  minds  of  his  friends. 


GREECE. 


123 


?vl.o  remained  faithful  to  him,  those   sublime  lessons   of   philosophy 
which  his  eloquent  disciple  Plato  has  transmitted  to  posterity. 

Another  disciple  of  Soc'rates  was  at  the  same  time  less  honorably- 
engaged  as  a  hireling  soldier  in  Asia.  Darius  Nothus,  at  his  ''*3ath, 
bequeathed  the  crown  of  Persia  to  his  eldest  son  Artaxer'xes,  sninamed 
Mnemon  from  the  strength  of  his  memory.  Cy'rus,  his  younger  broth- 
er; was  stimulated  by  the  queen  dowager  Parys'atis,to  claim  the  king- 
dom, on  the  ground  of  his  having  been  born  the  son  of  a  king,  while  the 
birth  of  Artaxer'xes  took  place  while  Darius  was  as  yet  in  a  privat^e 
station.  Cy'rus,  while  governor  of  lower  Asia,  had  earned  the  grati- 
tude of  Lysan'der  and  the  Spartans,  by  supplying  them  with  money  to 
carry  on  the  war  against  Athens,  and  in  return  he  obtained  their  permis- 
sion to  raise  an  auxiliary  force  in  Greece  to  t  'd  his  intended  rebellion. 
Thirteen  thousand  adventurers  soon  enrolled  themselves  under  his  stand- 
ard, consisting  not  only  of  the  Spartans  and  their  allies,  but  of  some 
renegade  Athenians,  among  whom  was  Xen'ophon,  the  celebrated  his- 
torian. With  these  auxiliaries,  and  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
of  his  own  provincials,  Cy'rus  invaded  Upper  Asia,  and  advanced  with 
little  difficulty  into  Babylonia  (b.  c.  400).  Here  he  encountered  his 
brother's  immense  army,  and  rashly  charging  the  centre  of  the  royal 
guards,  was  slain  on  the  field.  His  army,  according  to  the  usual 
custom  of  Asiatics,  dispersed  immediately ;  and  the  Greeks  were 
left  almost  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  country,  to  effect  a  difficult 
retreat  of  more  than  a  thousand  miles.  Their  leaders  proposed  terms 
of  accommodation  to  the  Persians.  They  were  invited  to  a  conference, 
under  the  pretence  of  arranging  the  preliminaries,  and  were  mercilessly 
butchered.  Undismayed,  they  chose  new  commanders  ;  and  after  en 
during  incredible  hardships,  succeeded  in  fighting  their  way  to  their  na- 
tive country.  Thus  gloriously  ended  "the  r-ctreat  of  the  ten  thousand  ;" 
but  nothing  can  excuse  the  original  guilt  of  the  expedition. 

The  remnant  of  the  ten  thousand  entered  into  the  service  of  the 
Spartans,  who  had  sei'.t  an  army  to  protect  the  Greek  rities  of  Asia 
from  the  threatened  vengeance  of  Artaxer'xes.  A  desux^ory  war  en- 
sued, productive  of  no  important  resuh,  until  the  command  of  the  Greek 
forces  was  given  to  Agesilaus,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  of  La- 
conia  by  the  influence  and  intrigues  of  Lysan'der.  iVgesilaus  depart- 
ed for  Asia  just  as  the  Spartans  had  escaped  from  the  peril  of  a  plot 
formed  for  their  destruction  by  the  subject  Lacedaemonians,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  ambiiious  Cin'adon  (b.  c.  396).  Lysan'der,  the  author 
of  his  greatness,  accompanied  Agesilaus,  hoping  to  re-establish  the  in- 
fluence which  he  had  formerly  possessed  in  the  Asiatic  cities.  But 
Agesilaus  treated  him  with  the  most  mortifying  neglect,  and  Lysan'der 
returned  home,  unpitied,  to  bewail  his  friend's  ingratitude.  The  Spar- 
tan monarch,  thus  freed  from  a  dangerous  rival,  then  directed  his  entire 
attention  to  the  war,  and  defeated  the  Persians  in  several  battles.  It 
is  very  probable  that  Agesilaus  would  have  shaken  the  throne  of  Arta- 
xer'xes, had  not  the  atrocious  tyranny  of  his  countrymen  provoked  the 
general  enmity  of  all  the  Greek  states,  and  kindled  a  new  Peloponne- 
sian  war. 

Under  the  most  frivolous  pretences,  Lysan'der  and  the  Spartan  kirig 
Pausanias  were  sent  to  invade  the  Theban  territories.     The  formsr  laid 


124  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

siege  to  Haiiar'tus,  the  latter  encamped  in  the  neighborhood  of  Plar«e'aa 
The  garrison  of  HaUar'tus,  taking  advantage  of  this  division  of  the  hos- 
tile forces,  made  a  sudden  sally,  and  defeated  the  Spartans  with  great 
slaughter,  Lysan'der  himself  being  slain  (b.  c.  394).  Pausanias  ob- 
tained leave  to  bury  the  dead,  on  condition  of  evacuating  Boeotia ;  and 
he  returned  disgraced  to  the  Peloponnesus,  vv^here  he  soon  died  of  a 
broken  heart 

The  news  of  this  event  revived  the  courage  of  the  enemies  of  Spar' 
ta ;  a  league  for  mutual  protection  was  formed  by  the  republics  of  Ar- 
gos,  Thebes,  Athens,  and  Corinth,  to  which  most  of  the  ccMnies  in 
Thrace  and  Macedon  acceded.  Agesilaus  was  immediately  recblled 
from  Asia,  and  he  obeyed  the  summons  with  great  promptitude,  leaving 
his  fleet,  and  a  portion  of  the  Asiatic  army,  under  the  charge  of  his 
kinsman  Pisan'der.  Conon,  one  of  the  ten  admirals,  who  had  been  ex- 
posed to  the  anger  of  the  Athenian  populace  after  the  seafight  at  Arginu- 
SBe,  found  a  generous  protector  in  Evag'oras,  king  of  Cy'prus,  by  whom 
he  was  introduced  to  the  notice  of  Artaxer'xes.  The  Persian  monarch, 
alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Agesilaus,  gladly  supplied  Conon  with  the 
means  of  fitting  out  a  fleet  which  might  cope  with  that  of  Spar'ta. 
Knowing  the  vanity  and  inexperience  of  Pisan'der,  Conon  sailed  in 
quest  of  the  Lacedaemonians  to  the  Dorian  shore  ;  and  off  the  harbor 
of  Cnidus  gained  a  decisive  victory,  by  which  the  Spartan  navy  was 
anniliilated,  and  its  empire  over  the  maritime  states  irretrievably  de 
stroyed.  With  consummate  skill  Conon  availed  himself  of  this  suc- 
cess to  restore  not  only  the  independence  of  Athens,  but  her  supremacy 
in  the  ^Egean  sea.  He  conducted  his  victorious  fleet  to  the  principal 
islands  and  colonies,  and,  either  by  persuasion  or  menace,  induced  them 
to  renew  their  allegiance  to  their  ancient  mistress. 

Agesilaus  received  the  intelligence  of  this  unexpected  reverse  just 
as  he  was  about  to  engage  a  Theban  army  at  Coroneia  (b.  c.  394).  He 
animated  his  soldiers  by  falsely  reporting  that  the  Spartan  fleet  had  been 
victorious  ;  but  even  this  stratagem  failed  to  gain  him  decisive  success. 
He  won  the  battle,  indeed,  but  at  such  a  heavy  cost  that  his  victory  was 
nearly  as  calamitous  as  a  defeat.  The  best  and  bravest  of  the  Spartan 
veterans  fell,  and  Agesilaus  himself  was  dangerously  wounded.  The 
battles  of  Cnidus  and  Coroneia  were  the  only  important  engagements 
in  this  war,  which  lasted  nearly  eight  years  ;  both  parties  exhausted 
their  strength  in  petty  skirmishes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Corinth ;  and 
that  wealt'-.y  city  was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  rivalry  of  the 
Argive  and  Spartan  factions. 

Conon  having  employed  the  Persian  money  to  rebuild  the  walls  of 
Athens,  and  the  Persian  fleet  to  restore  its  maritime  supremacy,  became 
suspected  by  Artaxer'xes  of  designing  to  raise  a  revolt  of  the  Greeks  in 
Asia  ;  and  this  suspicion  was  fostered  by  Spartan  emissaries,  who  offer- 
ed to  abandon,  in  the  name  of  their  government,  the  cause  of  Grecian 
liberty,  provided  that  the  Persian  monarch  would  grant  favorable  terms 
of  peace.  Artaxer'xes  listened  to  the  treacherous  proposals ;  Conon 
was  seized  and  murdered  in  prison ;  articles  of  peace  were  arranged 
with  the  Spartan  Antal'cidas,  by  which  the  liberty  of  the  Greek  citiea 
was  sacrificed,  and  the  independenco  of  all  the  minor  republics  pro- 
claimed.    The  Persian  monarch  and  the  Spartan  republic  took  upon 


GREECE.  I'-JS 

themselves  to  enforce  the  latter  regulation  \ihich  was  designed  to  pre- 
vent Athens  from  maintaining  her  superiority  over  the  maritime  states, 
and  Thebes  from  becoming  mistress  of  the  Boeotian  cities  (b.  c.  387). 
The  disgraceful  peace  of  AntaFcidas,  by  which  the  Spartans  resigned 
the  free  cities  of  Asia  to  a  barbarian,  in  order  to  gratify  their  unwortliy 
jealousies,  sufficiently  proves  that  the  selfish  policy  inculcated  by  the 
laws  of  Lycur'gus  was  as  ruinous  as  it  was  scandalous. 

The  city  of  Olyn'thus,  in  the  Macedonian  peninsula,  having  incurred 
the  resentment  of  the  Spartans,  an  army  was  sent  to  reduce  it ;  but 
this  was  found  no  easy  task  ;  and  it  was  not  until  after  a  war  of  four 
years,  in  which  the  Spartans  suffered  many  severe  defeats,  that  the 
Olynthians  were  forced  to  accept  a  peace  on  very  humiliating  condi- 
tions. In  the  course  of  this  war,  Phoe'bidas,  a  Spartan  genera]  in  vio- 
lation of  the  laws  of  nations,  seized  the  Cadmeia,  or  citadel  of  Thebes, 
then  enjoying  a  profound  peace  ;  and  his  crime  Avas  justified  and  re- 
warded by  Agesilaus  (b.  c.  383).  The  chief  of  the  Theban  ps*nots 
fled  to  Athens,  where  they  were  kindly  received  ;  an  oligarchy  of  trai- 
tors w  as  established  under  the  protection  of  the  Spartan  garrison ;  and 
Thebes  was  doomed  to  the  misery  that  Athens  had  endured  under  the 
thirty  tyrants. 

Peloj)'idas,  one  of  the  Theban  exiles,  stimulated  by  the  recent  ex- 
ample of  Thrasybu'lus,  concerted,  with  a  friend  who  had  remained  in 
Thebes,  a  bold  plan  for  the  liberation  of  his  country.  The  most  licen- 
tious of  the  tyrants  were  invited  to  a  feast ;  and  when  they  were  hot 
with  wine,  the  conspirators  entered  disguised  as  courtesans,  and  slew 
them  in  the  midst  of  their  debauchery  (b.  c.  378).  The  rest  of  the 
traitors  met  a  similar  fate  ;  and  the  patriots  being  reinforced  by  an 
Athenian  army,  vigorously  besieged  the  citadel,  and  soon  forced  the 
Lacedaemonian  garrison  to  capitulate. 

Cleom'brotus  was  sent  with  a  numerous  army  from  Lacedaemon,  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  to  chastise  the  Thebans.  The  Athenians  were 
beginning  to  repent  of  their  having  aided  the  revolters  ;  but  a  perfidious 
attempt  having  been  made  by  one  of  the  Spartan  generals  to  seize  the 
Peirae'us,  as  Phce'bidas  had  the  Cadmeia,  the  whole  city  of  Athens  was 
filled  with  just  indignation,  and  the  most  vigorous  preparations  were 
made  for  \s  ar.  Agesilaus  himself  repeatedly  invaded  Boeotia,  without 
performing  anything  worthy  of  his  former  fame.  Pelop'idas,  who  was 
chosen  general  by  his  grateful  countrymen,  won  two  splendid  victories 
at  Tan'agra  and  Teg'yra,  though  in  tbe  latter  fight  he  had  to  encounter 
a  vast  disparity  of  force.  The  Athenians  swept  the  Spartan  navy  from 
the  seas,  and  infested  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  maritime 
states,  disappointed  in  their  expectations  of  independence,  renewed 
their  confederacy  under  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  and  the  invention  of 
a  new  system  of  tactics  by  Iphic'rates,  was  fatal  to  the  ancient  supe- 
riority of  the  Lacedaemonian  phalanx.  Nothing,  in  sliort,  could  have 
saved  Spar'ta  from  destruction,  had  not  the  Thebans,  intoxicated  with 
success,  provoked  fiostiiity  by  their  vaunting  pride,  and  the  cruelty  with 
which  they  treated  the  cities  of  Boeotia. 

A  convention  of  all  the  Grecian  states  was  summoned  to  Spar'ta,  at 
the  request  of  the  Persian  monarch,  who  wished  to  obtain  aid  from  the 
chief  republics  in  subduing   an  insurrection  of  the  Egyptians  (b.  a 


l26  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

372).  The  representative  of  the  Thebans  was  Epaminon'das,  the  best 
miUtary  commander  that  Greece  had  yet  produced,  and  the  wisest 
statesman  it  had  seen  since  the  days  of  Per'icles.  His  eloquent  de- 
nunciation of  Spartan  ambition  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the 
minds  of  the  deputies,  which  all  the  ingenuity  of  Agesilaus  could  not 
remove  ;  the  assembly  was  dissolved  without  coming  to  any  conclusion  , 
but  the  influence  of  Sparta  was  destroyed  for  ever.  Early  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  Cleom'brotuSjwho,  during  the  sickness  of  Agesilaus  had 
been  appointed  to  the  chief  command,  invaded  Bceotia  with  a  powerful 
army.  Epaminon'das  met  him  on  the  memorable  field  of  Leuc'tra,  and 
by  attacking  the  long  lines  of  the  Lacedajmonians  with  massy  columns, 
won  a  decisive  victory,  in  which  Cleom'brotus  himself  was  slain.  The 
consequences  of  this  battle  were  more  important  than  the  triumph 
itself;  for  all  the  states  previously  under  the  yoke  of  Spar'ta  began 
openly  to  aspire  at  independence. 

The  Athenians,  though  justly  enraged  with  the  Spartans,  were  by 
no  means  satisfied  with  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Leuc'tra.  They 
withdrew  their  friendship  from  the  Thebans,  who  soon,  however,  found 
a  more  powerful  ally  in  Jason,  the  captain-general  of  Thessaly.  This 
noble  prince,  who  had  planned  the  union  of  all  the  Grecian  states  into 
a  single  monarchy,  of  which  he  designed  himself  to  be  the  head, 
joined  the  Thebans  after  the  battle,  and  meditated  a  truce  between 
them  and  the  Spartans.  He  was  planning  further  schemes  of  empire, 
when  he  was  murdered  by  seven  assassins  in  the  presence  of  his  army 
(b.  c.  370).  Two  of  the  murderers  were  slain  on  the  spot ;  five  escaped 
by  the  fleetness  of  their  horses,  and  were  received  in  the  Grecian  re- 
publics as  heroic  assertors  of  liberty. 

No  peril  more  imminently  threatened  Spar'ta  than  the  revolt  of  the 
Peloponnesian  states  which  had  hitherto  tamely  submitted  to  her  au- 
thority ;  but  it  was  dangerous  to  attempt  their  subjugation  by  force,  lest 
they  might  combine  together  for  mutual  protection.  These  sta*^es  were 
equally  reluctant  to  encounter  the  hazards  of  war,  until  they  haa  ..'e- 
cured  the  support  of  a  Theban  army ;  and  they  sent  pressing  messages 
for  rid  to  Bceotia.  After  some  delay,  Epaminon'das  and  Pelop'idas 
werb  sent  into  the  Peloponnesus  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and 
they  advanced  without  interruption  into  Laconia,  where  the  face  of  an 
enemy  had  not  been  seen  for  five  centuries  (b.  c.  3G9).  The  whole 
country  was  laid  desolate  ;  but  what  was  more  afflicting  to  the  Spar- 
tans even  than  these  ravages,  Epaminon'das  rebuilt  the  ancient  city  of 
Messene,  placed  a  Theban  garrison  in  its  citadel,  and  called  back  the 
wreck  of  the  Messenian  nation  to  their  native  land,  Avhere  they  watched 
every  favorable  occasion  for  wreaking  their  vengeance  on  their  oppres- 
sors. Scarcely  had  this  great  enterprise  been  accomplished,  when  the 
Thebar.  generals  heard  that  the  Athenians  had  not  only  entered  into 
alli?,nce  with  the  Spartans,  but  had  sent  a  large  army  to  their  aid,  un- 
der the  command  of  Iphic'rates.  They  immediately  evacuated  Laco- 
nia, and  returned  home  laden  with  plunder  through  the  isthmus  of  Cor- 
inth, meeting  no  interruption  from  Iphic'rates,  who  led  his  forces  by  a 
different  road.  The  Thebans,  instead  of  receiving  their  illustri'^us 
generals  with  gratitude,  brought  them  to  trial  for  having  continued  their 
command  beyond  tlie  time  limited  by  law.     Pelop'idas  lost  liis  prea- 


GREECE. 


127 


ence  of  mind,  and  escaped  with  difficulty ;  bat  Epaminon'das,  proudly 
recounting  his  heroic  deeds,  awed  liis  accusers  into  silence,  and  waa 
conducted  home  in  triumph. 

The  Peloponnesian  war  lingered  during  the  six  following  years. 
The  Spartans  were  engaged  in  punishing  their  revolted  subjects  in  La- 
conia ;  the  Thebans  were  involved  in  a  difficult  struggle  against  Alex- 
ander, the  tyrant  of  Pherae,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  influence  of  Ja- 
son in  Thessaly,  and  Ptolemy,  the  usui-per  of  the  throne  of  Macedon. 
Pelop'idas  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  army  sent  to  regu 
lale  these  difficulties.  He  forced  Alexan'der  to  submit  to  the  terms  of 
peace  imposed  by  the  Theban  senate,  and  he  restored  Perdic'cas,  the 
letjitimate  heir,  to  the  throne  of  Macedon.  To  secure  the  'Jlieban  in- 
terest  in  the  north,  he  brought  home  with  him  several  of  the  Macedo- 
nian princes  and  nobles  as  hostages,  among  whom  was  Philip,  the 
younger  brother  of  Perdic'cas,  and  future  conqueror  of  Gieece.  On 
his  return,  Pelop'idas  was  treacherously  seized  by  the  tyrant  of  Pherae, 
and  thrown  into  prison  ;  nor  was  he  liberated  until  Epaminon'das,  after 
the  defeat  of  many  inferior  leaders,  was  sent  into  Thessaly,  where  he 
soon  forced  the  tyrant  Alexan'der  to  unconditional  submission.  Pelop'- 
idas, after  his  liberation,  Avas  sent  as  an  ambassador  to  Persia,  where 
his  eloquence  so  charmed  Artaxer'xes,  that  he  broke  off  his  alliance 
with  Spar'ta  and  concluded  a  league  with  the  Thebans.  The  greatei? 
aumber  of  the  Grecian  states  refused  to  accede  to  this  union,  partly - 
from  their  ancient  hostility  to  Persia,  partly  from  jealousy  of  Thebes. 
Epaminon'das  was  therefore  sent  a  third  time  into  the  Peloponnesus 
with  a  powerful  army,  to  revive  the  spirit  of  the  former  confederacy 
against  Spar'ta  (b.  c.  36G).  He  wasted  much  precious  time  in  trying 
.•  obtain  a  naval  power,  and  he  was  long  prevented  from  undertaking 
any  enterprise  of  importance  by  the  jealousy  and  dissensions  of  his  al- 
Vics,  especially  the  Arcadians.  While  he  was  thus  employed,  his  col- 
league Pelop'idas  fell  in  a  battle  against  Alexan'der,  the  tyrant  of  Phe- 
rae (b.  c.  364);  and  the  Thebans,  through  sorrow  for  his  death,  made 
no  public  rejoicings  for  their  victory.  His  loss  was  poorly  compensa- 
ted by  the  destruction  of  the  tyrant,  who  Vi^as  soon  after  murdered  by 
his  own  family. 

In  the  following  year,  Epaminon'das  entered  upon  his  last  campaign, 
by  rnarciiing  against  the  Peloponnesian  states  which  had  separated 
from  the  Theban  alliance.  Knowing  the  unprotected  condition  of 
Spar'ta,  he  made  a  forced  march,  and  appeared  before  the  city  while 
the  army  was  at  a  considerable  distance.  His  attack  was  fierce  ;  but 
it  was  repelled  by  the  valor  of  Archida'mus,  the  son  of  Agesilaus,  who, 
with  a  handful  of  men,  compelled  the  Thebans  to  retreat.  Foiled  in 
this  attempt,  he  resolved  to  surprise  the  wealthy  city  of  Mantiuis'a ; 
and  would  have  succeeded,  had  not  a  squadron  of  Athenian  cavalry 
accidentally  reached  the  place  a  little  before  the  appearance  of  the 
Thebans,  and  by  their  determined  valor  baffled  the  utmost  efforts  of  the 
assailants.  These  repeated  disappointments  induced  Epaminon'das  to 
hazard  a  pitched  battle.  It  was  fought  in  the  neighborhood  of  Man- 
tinae'a,  and  was  the  most  arduous  and  sanguinary  contest  in  whicli  the 
Greeks  had  yet  engaged.  Epaminon'das  fell  in  the  arms  of  victory ; 
and  the  Thebans,  neglecting  to  pursue  their  advantages,  renderfd  this 


128  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

sanguinary  Struggle  indecisive,  and  productive  of  no  other  consequence 
than  a  general  languor  and  debility  in  all  the  Grecian  states.  The 
glory  of  Thebes  perished  with  the  two  great  men  who  had  raised  her 
to  fame  :  a  general  peace  Avas  established  by  the  mediation  of  Artaxer'- 
xes  (b.  c.  362),  on  the  single  condition,  that  each  republic  should  re- 
tain its  respective  possessions. 

Spar'ta  was  anxious  to  recover  Messenia ;  but  this  being  opposed  by 
the  Persian  king,  Agesihius,  to  punish  Artaxer'xes,  led  an  army  into 
Egypt,  where  he  supported  one  rebel  after  another,  and  acquired  con- 
siderable wealth  in  this  dishonorable  war.  On  his  return  home,  he 
died  in  an  obscure  port  on  the  Cyreniac  coast,  at  the  advanced  age  of 
eighty-four  years  (b.  c.  361).  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
Spar'ta  had  attained  the  summit  of  her  greatness ;  at  its  close,  she  had 
sunk  into  hopeless  weakness  :  and,  notwithstanding  all  the  praise  be- 
stowed upon  this  monarch  by  the  eloquent  Xen'ophon,  it  is  undeniable 
that  most  of  Spar'ta's  misfortunes  were  owing  to  the  ambition,  the 
obstinacy,  and  the  perfidy  of  Agesilaus. 

Section  Yl.—The  Second  Sacred  War.— Destruction  of  Grecian  Freedom. 

FROM  B.  c.  361  TO  B.  c.  336. 

ScARCELV  had  the  third  Peloponnesian  war  terminated,  when  the 
Athenians,  by  their  tyranny  and  rapacity  toward  the  maritime  states, 
were  deprived  of  all  the  advantages  they  had  derived  from  the  patriot- 
ism  of   Conon.     Chares,  a  blustering,  vulgar   demagogue,  raised   to 
power  by  pandering  to  the  passions  of  a  licentious  populace,  exhorted 
his  countrymen   to  supply  their  exhausted  treasury  by  plundering  the 
wealth  of  their  allies   and  colonies.     This   counsel  was  too  faithfully 
obeyed.     The  weaker   states    complained  ;  but   the  islands  of  Chios, 
Cos,  and  Rhodes,  together  with  the  city  of  Byzan'tium,  prepared  openly 
to  revolt,  and  entered  into  a  league  for  their  mutual  protection  (b.  c. 
358).  Chares  was  sent  to  chastise  the  insurgents  :  he  laid  siege  to  the 
city  of  Chios,  but  was  driven  from  its  walls  with  disgrace   and  loss; 
Chabrias,  the  best  leader  that  the   Athenians  possessed,  falling  in  the 
engagement.     The  insurgents,  encouraged  by  this   success,  began  to 
assume  the  offensive,  and  to  ravage  the  islands  that  remained  faithful  to 
Athens.     A  new  armament  was  prepared  to  check  their  progress,  and 
it  was   intrusted   to   the   joint  command   of   Chares,  Timotheus,   and 
Iphic'rates  ;  but  Chares,  having  been  hindered  by  his  colleagues  from 
hazarding  a  battle  off  Byzan'tium  under  very  favorable  circumstances, 
procured  their  recall,  and  had  them  brought  to  trial  upon  a  charge  of 
treachery  and  cowardice.     Venal  orators   conducted  the  prosecution; 
and  a  degraded  people  sentenced  the  two  illustrious  commanders  to 
pay  an  exorbitant  fine.     They  both  retired  into  voluntary  exile,  and 
never  again  entered  the  service  of  their  ungrateful  coimtry.     Chares, 
left  uncontrolled,  wholly  neglected  the  commission  with  which  he^  had 
been  intrusted,  and  hired  himself  and  his  troops  to  the  satrap  Artabazus, 
then  in  rebellion  against  Artaxer'xes  O'chus,  king  of  Persia.     This 
completed  the  ruin  of  the  Athenians.     O'chus  threatened  them  Avith  the 
whole  weight  of  his  resentment,  unless  they  instantly  recalled  their 


GREECE.  l2<5 

Armament  from  the  East ,  and  Avitli   this  mandate  the  degraded  repub 
licans  were  forced  to  comply  (b.  c.  356).     The  confederate   states  re 
gained  complete  freedom  and  independence,  which  they  preserved  foT 
twenty  years,  when  they,  with  the  rest  of  Greece,  fell  under  the  domin 
ion  of  the  Macedonians. 

Spar'ta,  Thebes,  and  Athens,  having  successively  lost  their  suprem 
acy,  the  Amphictyonic  council,  which  for  more  than  a  century  had 
been  a  mere  pageant,  began  to  exercise  an  important  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece.  They  issued  a  decree  subjecting  the  Phocians  to  a 
heavy  fine  for  cultivating  some  lands  that  had  been  consecrated  to 
Apol'lo,  and  imposing  a  similar  penalty  on  the  Spartans  for  their  treach- 
erous occupation  of  the  Cadmeia  (b.  c.  3  37).  The  Phocians,  anima- 
ted by  their  leader  Philomelus,  and  secretly  encouraged  by  the  Spar- 
tans, not  only  refused  obedience,  but  had  recourse  to  arms.  In  defiance 
of  the  prejudices  of  the  age,  Philomelus  stormed  the  city  of  Del'phi, 
plundered  the  sacred  treasury,  and  employed  its  wealth  in  raising  an 
army  of  mercenary  adventurers.  The  Thebans  and  Locrians  were  fore- 
most in  avenging  this  insult  to  the  national  religion  ;  but  the  war  was 
rather  a  series  of  petty  skirmishes  than  regular  battles.  It  was  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  sanguinary  spirit  displayed  on  both  sides ;  the 
Thebans  murdering  their  captives  as  sacrilegious  wretches  ;  the  Phoci- 
ans retaliating  these  cruelties  on  all  the  captives  that  fell  into  their 
hands.  At  length  Philomelus,  being  forced  to  a  general  engagement 
under  disadvantageous  circumstances,  was  surrounded,  and  on  the  point 
of  being  made  prisoner,  when  he  threw  himself  headlong  from  a  rock, 
to  escape  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  (b.  c.  353).  Onomar'- 
chus,  the  lieutenant  and  brother  of  the  Phocian  general,  safely  conduct- 
ed the  remnant  of  the  army  to  the  fastnesses  of  Del'phi.  He  proved 
an  able  and  prudent  leader.  With  the  treasures  of  the  Delphic  temple 
he  purchased  the  aid  of  Ly'cophron,  the  chief  of  the  Thessalian  prin- 
ces ;  and,  thus  supported,  he  committed  fearful  ravages  in  the  territo- 
ries of  Bceotia  and  Locris.  The  Thebans,  in  great  distress,  applied  for 
aid  to  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  who  had  long  sought  a  pretext  for  inter- 
fering in  the  affairs  of  Greece  (b.  c.  352) :  he  marched  immediately  to 
their  relief,  completely  routed  the  Phocians  in  the  plains  of  Thessaly, 
and  suspended  from  a  gibbet  the  body  of  Onomar'chus  which  was  found 
among  the  slain.  He  dared  not,  however,  pursue  his  advantages  fur- 
ther ;  for  he  knew  that  an  attempt  to  pass  the  straits  of  Thermop'ylae 
would  expose  him  to  the  hostility  of  all  the  Grecian  states  which  he 
was  not  yet  prepared  to  encounter. 

Phayl'lus,  the  brother  of  the  two  preceding  leaders  of  the  Phocians, 
renewed  the  war,  and  again  became  formidable.  Philip,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  checking  his  progress,  attempted  to  seize  Thermop'ylae  ;  but  had 
the  mortification  to  find  the  straits  pre-occupied  by  the  Athenians.  He 
returned  home,  apparently  wearied  of  Grecian  politics  ;  but  he  had 
purchased  the  services  of  venal  orators,  whose  intrigues  soon  afibrded 
him  a  plausible  pretext  for  renewed  interference.  The  war  lingered  for 
two  or  three  years  ;  the  treasures  of  the  Delphic  temple  began  to  fail, 
and  the  Phocians  longed  for  peace.  But  the  vengeance  of  the  The- 
bans was  insatiable :  they  besought  Philip  to  crush  the  impious  pro- 
faners  of  the  temple  ;  and  that  prince,  having  lulled  the  suspicions  of 

9 


130  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  Athtnians,  in  spite  of  the  urgen  warnings  of  the  patiiotic  Demos'- 
thenes,  passed  the  straits  without  opposition,  and  laid  the  unhappy 
Phocians  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  their  inveterate  enemies  (b.  c.  347). 
Their  cities  were  dismantled,  their  country  laid  desolate,  and  their  vote 
in  the  Amphictyonic  council  transferred  to  the  king  of  Macedon. 

A  new  sacred  war  was  excited  by  the  artifices  of  iEs'chines,  the 
Athenian  deputy  to  the  Amphictyonic  council,  a  venal  orator,  who  had 
lonff  sold  himself  to  Philip.  He  accused  the  Locrians  of  Amphis'sa  of 
cultivating  the  Cirrhean  plain,  which  had  been  consecrated  with  such 
solemn  ceremonies  in  the  first  sacred  war  The  Locrians,  aiter  the 
example  of  the  Phocians,  refused  obedience  to  the  sentence  of  the 
Amphic'tyons  ;  and  the  charge  of  conducting  the  war  against  them  was 
intrusted  to  Philip  (b.  c.  339).  He  hastened  to  Del'phi,  marched 
against  Amphis'sa,  took  it  by  storm ;  and  soon  after  revealed  his  de- 
signs against  the  liberties  of  Greece,  by  seizing  and  fortifying  Elateia, 
the  capital  of  Phocis.  The  Athenians  and  Thebans  instantly  took  up 
arms ;  but  they  intrusted  their  forces  to  incompetent  generals  ;  and 
when  they  encountered  the  Macedonians  at  Chseroneia,  they  were 
irretrievably  defeated.  The  independence  of  the  Grecian  communities 
was  thus  destroyed;  and  in  a  general  convention  of  the  Amphictyonic 
Btates  at  Corinth  (b.  c.  337),  Philip  was  chosen  captain-generai  of  con- 
federate Greece,  and  appointed  to  lead  their  united  forces  af  lunot  tha 
Persian  empire. 


MACEDON.  131 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE    HISTORY   OF    MACEDON. 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline. 

The  range  of  Mount  Hae'mus  separates  Thrace  and  Macedon  from 
lorthern  Europe,  and  the  Cambunian  mountains  on  the  south  divide  the 
latter  country  from  Thessaly.  The  space  intervening  between  these 
mountain-chains  was,  during  a  long  succession  of  ages,  distinguished  by 
different  appellations,  according  as  the  barbarous  nations  that  tenanted 
these  regions  rose  into  temporary  eminence.  The  most  ancient  name 
of  Macedonia  was  ^Emath'ia;  but  the  time  and  cause  of  the  appellation 
being  changed  are  unknown.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  boundaries 
of  a  country  whose  limits  Avere  constantly  varying ;  but  in  its  most 
flourishing  state,  Macedon  was  bounded  on  ihe  north  by  the  river 
Strymon,  and  the  Scardian  branch  of  Mount  Hae'mus  ;  on  the  east  by 
the  iEgean  sea ;  on  the  south  by  the  Cambunian  mountains ;  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Adriatic.  It  was  said  to  contain  one  hundred  and  fifty 
different  nations  ;  and  this  number  will  not  appear  exaggerated,  when 
it  is  remembered  that  each  of  its  cities  and  towns  was  regarded  as  an 
independent  state. 

The  western  division  of  the  country,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  was 
for  the  most  part  possessed  by  the  uncivilized  TaiUant'ii.  In  their  ter- 
ritory stood  Epidam'nus,  founded  by  a  Corcyrean  colony,  whose  name 
the  Romans  changed  to  Dyrac'chium  (Durazzo),  on  account  of  its  ill- 
omened  signification  ;  and  Apollonia,  a  city  colonized  by  the  Corin- 
thians. South  of  the  Taulant'ii,  but  still  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  was  the 
territory  of  the  Alymi6ta3,  whose  chief  cities  were  Ely  ma,  and  Bul'lis. 
East  of  these  lay  a  litt'e  inland  district  called  the  kingdom  of  Orestes, 
because  the  son  of  Agamem'non  is  said  to  have  settled  there  after  the 
murder  of  his  mother. 

The  southeastern  part  of  the  country,  called  ^math'ia  or  Macedonia 
Proper,  contained  iEgae'a,  or  Edes'sa,  the  cradle  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy,  and  Pel'la,  the  favorite  capital  of  its  most  powerful  kings. 
The  districts  of  iEmath'ia  that  bordered  the  sea  were  called  Pieria, 
and  were  consecrated  to  the  Muses  :  they  contained  the  important  cities 
Pyd'na,  Phy'lace,and  Dium.  Northeast  was  the  region  of  Amphax'itis, 
bordering  the  Thermaic  gulf:  its  chief  cities  were  Ther'ma,  subse- 
quently called  Thessalonica  (Salonichi),  and  Stagira,  the  birthplace  of 
Aristotle. 

The  Chalcidian  peninsula,  between  the  Thermaic  and  Strymonian 
gulfs,  has  its  coast  deeply  indented  by  noble  bays  and  inlets  of  the 


132  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

yEgeau  sea.  It  contained  many  important  trading  cities  and  colonies 
the  chief  of  which  Pallene,  in  the  headland  of  the  same  name  :  Potidae'a, 
a  Corinthian  colony;  Torone,  on  the  Toronaic  gulf;  and  Olyn'thus, 
famous  for  the  many  sieges  it  sustained.  In  the  region  of  Edonia, 
near  the  river  Strymon,  was  Amphip'olis,  a  favorite  colony  of  the 
Athenians,  Scotus'sa,  and  Crenides,  whose  name  was  changed  to 
Philip'pi  by  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  most  remarkable  mountains  of  Macedon  were  the  Scardian 
and  other  branches  from  the  chain  of  Hae'mus  ;  Pangte'us,  celebrated 
for  its  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver ;  A'thos,  which  juts  into  the 
^o-ean  sea,  forming  a  remarkable  and  dangerous  promontory ;  and 
Olym'pus,  which  partly  belonged  to  Thessaly.  Most  of  these,  but 
especially  the  Scardian  chain  and  Mount  A'thos,  were  richly  wooded, 
and  the  timber  they  produced  was  highly  valued  by  shipbuilders.  The 
principal  rivers  falling  into  the  Adriatic  were  the  Panyasus,  the  Ap'sus, 
the  Laiis,  and  the  Celyd'nus  ;  on  the  iEgean  side  were  the  Haliac'mon, 
the  EMgon,  the  Ax'ius,  and  the  Strymon,  which  was  the  northern 
boundary  of  Macedon,  until  Philip  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Nes'- 
sus. 

The  soil  of  Macedonia  was  very  fruitful ;  on  the  seacoast  especially 
it  produced  great  abundance  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  and  most  of  its 
mountains  were  rich  in  mineral  treasures.  Macedonia  was  celebrated 
for  an  excellent  breed  of  horses,  to  which  great  attention  was  paid  ;  no 
fewer  than  thirty  thousand  brood  mares  being  kept  in  the  royal  stud  at 
Pella. 


Section  IT. — History  of  the  Macedonian  Monarchy. 
FROM   B.  c.  813   TO   B.  c.  323. 

An  Argive  colony,  conducted  by  Car'anus,  is  said  to  have  invaded 
OEmath'ia  by  the  command  of  an  oracle,  and  to  have  been  conducted 
by  a  flock  of  goats  to  the  city  of  Edes'sa,  which  Avas  easily  stormed 
(*B.  c.  813).  The  kingdom  thus  founded  was  gradually  enlarged  at  the 
expense  of  the  neighboring  barbarous  nations  ;  and  was  fast  rising  into 
importance,  when,  in  the  reign  of  king  Amyn'tas,  it  became  tributary  to 
the  Persians  (b.  c.  5l3),  immediately  after  the  return  of  Darius  from 
his  Scythian  campaign.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Persians  at  Platae'ae, 
Macedon  recovered  its  independence ;  which,  however,  was  never 
recognised  by  the  Persian  kings.  Per'diccas  II.  (b.  c.  454),  on  coming 
to  the  throne,  found  his  dominions  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  Illyri- 
ans  and  Thracians,  while  his  brother  was  encouraged  to  contest  the 
crown  by  the  Athenians.  He  was  induced  by  these  circumstances  to 
take  the  Spartan  side  in  the  first  Peloponnesian  war,  and  much  of  the 
success  of  Bras'idas  was  owing  to  his  active  co-operation. 

Civilization  and  the  arts  of  social  life  were  introduced  into  Macedo 
nia  by  Archelaus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Per'diccas  (b.  c.  413).  His 
plans  for  the  reform  of  the  government  were  greatly  impeded  by  the 
jealous   hostility  of  the  nobles,  who  were   a  kind  of  petty  princes 
barely  conceding  to  their  kings  the  right  of  precedence.     He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  learning  and  learned  men ;  he  invited  Soc'rates  to 


MACEDON. 


133 


ais  court ;  and  munificently  protected  Eurip'ides  when  he  was  forced  tu 
depart  from  Athens, 

Archelaus  was  murdered  by  Crat'erus,  one  of  nis  favorites 
(b.  c.  400) ;  and  his  death  was  followed  by  a  series  of  civil  wars  and 
sanguinary  revolutions,  which  possess  no  interest  or  importance.  They 
were  terminated  by  the  accession  of  Philip  (b.  c.  360),  who,  on  the 
death  of  his  brother  Perdic'cas  III.,  escaped  from  Thebes,  whither  he 
had  betn  sent  as  a  hostage,  and  was  chosen  king  in  preference  to  his 
nephew,  whose  infancy  disqualified  him  from  jeigning  in  a  crisis  of 
difficulty  and  danger. 

Philip  found  his  new  kingdom  assailed  by  four  formidable  armies, 
'and  distracted  by  the  claims  of  two  rival  competitors  for  the  throne, 
one  of  whom  had  the  powerful  support  of  the  Athenians.  Educated 
•n  the  arts  of  war  and  state-policy  by  the  great  Epaminon'das,  Philip 
displayed  valor  and  wisdom  adequate  to  the  crisis  :  he  purchased,  by 
large  bribes,  the  forbearance  rather  than  the  friendship  of  the  Illyrians, 
Paeonians,  and  Thracians ;  he  then  marched  with  his  whole  force 
against  Argae'us  and  his  Athenian  auxiliaries,  whom  he  defeated  in  a 
general  engagement.  Argaj'us  was  slain,  and  his  supporters  remained 
prisoners  of  war.  Philip,  anxious  to  court  the  favor  of  the  Athenians, 
dismissed  his  captives  without  ransom,  and  resigned  his  pretensions  to 
Amphip'olis. 

Having  restored  tranquillity  to  his  kingdom,  he  began  to  prepare  for 
its  security  by  improving  the  tactics  and  military  discipline  of  his  sub- 
jects. Epaminon'das,  at  Leuc'tra  and  Mantineia,  had  shown  the  supe- 
riority of  a  heavy  column  over  the  long  lines  in  which  the  Greeks  usu- 
ally arranged  their  forces  ;  and,  improving  on  this  lesson,  he  instituted 
the  celebrated  Macedonian  phalanx.  He  soon  found  the  advantage  of 
this  improvement:  having  been  forced  to  war  by  the  Psoniana,  he 
subdued  their  country,  and  made  it  a  Macedonian  province  ;  and  then, 
without  resting,  he  marched  against  the  Illyrians,  whom  he  overthrew 
so  decisively,  that  they  begged  for  peace  on  any  conditions  he  pleased 
to  impose. 

While  Athens  was  involved  in  the  fatal  war  against  the  colonies 
Philip,  though  professing  the  warmest  friendship  for  the  republic,  '^ap- 
twsd  Amphip'olis,  Pyd'na,  and  Potidae'a ;  and  stripped  Cotys,  kin^,  of 
Thr  ice,  the  most  faithful  ally  the  Athenians  possessed,  of  a  great  por- 
tion uf  his  dominions.  Thence  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  tyrants 
of  Thes'saly  and  Epirus ;  and  received  from  the  Thessalians,  in  grati- 
tude for  his  services,  the  cession  of  all  the  revenues  arising  from  their 
fairs  and  markets,  as  well  as  all  the  conveniences  of  their  harbors  and 
shipping.  When  the  campaign  was  concluded  (b.  c.  357),  he  married 
Olym'pias,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Epirus,  a  princess  equally  remark- 
able for  her  crimes  and  her  misfortunes. 

While  Greece  was  distracted  by  the  second  sacred  war,  Philip  was 
steadily  pursuing  his  policy  of  extending  his  northern  frontiers,  and 
securing  the  maritime  cities  of  Thrace.  He  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  Kersoblep'tes  and  an  Athenian  army  ,  in  spite,  however,  of  these 
enemies,  he  captured  the  important  city  of  Methone  ;  but  he  deemed 
.he  conquest  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  an  eye  during  the  siege. 
riis  attention  was  next  directed  to  the  sacred  war,  which  he  was  invi- 


134  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ted  to  undertake  by  the  Thebans.  Having  subdued  the  Phocians,  ho 
made  an  attempt  to  seize  Thermop'ylse  (b.  c.  352),  but  was  baffled  by 
the  energetic  promptitude  of  the  Athenians.  They  were  roused  to  thia 
display  of  valor  by  the  eloquent  harangues  of  the  orator  Demos'lhenes, 
whose  whole  life  was  spent  in  opposing  Philip's  designs  against  Gre« 
cian  liberty.  He  was  soon  after  doomed  to  meet  a  second  disappoint- 
ment ;  his  troops  being  driven  from  the  island  of  Euboe'a  by  the  virtu- 
ous Phocion,  the  last  and  most  incorruptible  of  the  long  list  of  generals 
and  statesmen  that  adorned  the  Athenian  republic. 

These  disappointments  only  stimulated  his  activity.  Having  pur- 
chased, by  large  bribes,  the  services  of  several  traitors  in  OlyiVthus,  he 
marched  against  that  opulent  city  (b.  c.  349),  while  the  venal  orators  at 
Athens,  whorx-i  he  had  taken  into  his  pay,  dissuaded  the  careless  and 
sensual  Athenians  from  hastening  to  the  relief  of  their  allies.  The 
noble  exhortations,  solemn  warnings,  and  bitter  reproaches  of  Demos'- 
thenes,  failed  to  inspire  his  countrymen  with  energy :  they  wasted  the 
time  of  action  in  discussions,  embassies,  and  fruitless  expeditions  ; 
and  when  they  began  to  prepare  for  some  more  serious  interference, 
they  were  astounded  by  the  intelligence  that  Olyn'thus  was  no  more. 
It  had  been  betrayed  to  Philip,  who  levelled  its  walls  and  buildings  to 
the  ground,  and  dragged  the  inhabitants  into  slavery.  This  triumph 
was  followed  by  the  conquest  of  the  whole  Chalcidian  peninsula,  with 
its  valuable  commercial  marts  and  seaports.  His  artifices  and  bribes 
disarmed  the  vengeance  of  the  Athenians,  and  Mled  them  into  a  fatal 
eecurity,  v/hile  Philip  finally  put  an  end  to  the  sacred  war,  by  the  utter 
destruction  of  the  Phocians.  They  even  permitted  him  to  extend  his 
conquests  in  Thebes,  and  to  acquire  a  commanding  influence  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  by  leading  an  armament  thither,  which  completed  the 
humiliation  of  th©  Spartans. 

For  several  years  Philip  was  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  the  com- 
mercial cities  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Propon'tis,  while  the  Athenians  made  some  vigorous  but  desultory 
efforts  to  check  his  progress.  At  length  the  third  sacred  war  against 
the  Locrians  of  Amphis'sa  gave  liim  an  opportunity  of  again  appearing 
as  the  champion  of  the  national  religion  of  Greece.  He  entered  Pho- 
cis,  and  thence  marched  to  Amphis'sa,  which  he  totally  destroyed 
(b.  c.  338).  Before  the  southern  Greeks  could  recover  from  their 
astonishment,  he  threw  off  the  mask  which  had  hitherto  concealed  his 
plans,  and  announced  to  the  states  his  design  of  becoming  their  master, 
by  seizing  and  fortifying  Elateia.  The  Thebans  and  Athenians  united 
in  defence  of  Grecian  liberty,  but  unfortunately  they  intrusted  their 
forces  to  feeble  and  treacherous  commanders.  They  encountered  the 
Macedonians,  headed  by  Philip  and  his  valiant  son  Alexander,  in  the 
plains  of  Cheroneia,  and  were  irretrievably  ruined.  They  were  forced 
'O  accept  of  peace  dictated  by  the  conqueror,  who  treated  the  Thebans 
with  dreadful  severity,  but  showed  great  forbearance  and  kindness  to 
the  Athenians.  In  the  following  year  a  general  convention  of  the 
Grecian  states  was  held  at  Corinth,  where  it  was  resolved  that  all 
should  unite  in  a  war  against  the  Persians,  and  that  Philip  should  be 
appointed  captain-general  of  the  confederate  forces.  While  prepara- 
tions were  making  for  this  great  enterprise,  Philip  was  staboed  to  the 


MACEDON.  135 

heart  by  Pausanias,  a  Macedonian  nobleman  (b.  c.  336),  whose  motives 
for  committing  such  an  atrocious  crime  can  not  be  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. 

Alexan'der,  deservedly  surnamed  the  Great,  succeeded  his  father, 
but  on  his  accession  had  to  contend  against  a  host  of  enemies.  The 
Thracians,  the  Illyrians,  and  the  other  barbarous  tribes  of  the  north, 
took  up  arms,  hoping  that  they  might  easily  triumph  over  his  youth  and 
inexperience.  But  they  were  miserably  disappointed.  Alexander,  in 
an  incredibly  short  space  of  time,  forced  their  fastnesses,  and  inflicted 
on  them  so  severe  a  chastisement,  that  they  never  again  dared  to 
attempt  a  revolt.  But,  in  the  meantime,  a  report  had  been  spread  in 
Greece,  that  Alexander  had  fallen  in  Illyr'ia.  The  different  states 
began  to  make  vigorous  preparations  for  shaking  off  the  yoke  of  Mace- 
don  ;  and  the  Thebans  took  the  lead  in  the  revolt,  by  murdering  the 
governors  that  Philip  had  appointed,  and  besieging  the  garrison  in  the 
Cadmeia  (b.  c  335).  Fourteen  days  had  scarcely  elapsed,  when  Alex- 
ander, eager  for  vengeance,  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Thebes, 
After  a  brief  struggle,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm,  and  levelled  with 
the  ground.  The  conqueror  spared  the  lives  of  those  who  were 
descended  from  Pin'dar,  of  the  priestly  families,  and  of  all  who  had 
shown  attachment  to  the  Macedonian  interest ;  but  the  rest  of  the 
inhabitants  were  doomed  to  death  or  slavery.  It  must,  however,  be 
remarked,  that  the  Boeotians  in  Alexander's  army  were  more  active 
than  the  Macedonians  in  this  scene  of  barbarity,  and  that  the  Thebans, 
by  their  previous  treatment  of  the  Boeotian  cities,  had  provoked  retali- 
ation. Alexander  subsequently  regretted  the  fate  of  Thebes,  and  con- 
fessed that  its  destruction  was  both  cruel  and  impolitic. 

This  dreadful  calamity  spread  terror  throughout  Greece ;  the  states 
hastened  to  renew  their  submission  ;  and  Alexander,  whose  wliole  soul 
was  bent  on  the  conquest  of  Asia,  accepted  their  excuses,  and  renewed 
the  confederacy,  of  which  his  father  had  been  chosen  chief.  He  then 
intrusted  the  government  of  Greece  and  Macedon  to  Antip'ater,  and 
prepared  to  invade  the  great  empire  of  Persia  with  an  army  not 
exceeding  five  thousand  horse,  and  thirty  thousand  foot  (b.  c.  334). 
He  led  his  forces  to  Sestus  in  Thrace,  whence  they  were  transported 
across  the  Hellespont  without  opposition,  the  Persians  having  totally 
neglected  the  defence  of  their  western  frontier. 

The  Persian  satraps  rejected  the  prudent  advice  of  Mem'non,  who 
recommended  them  to  lay  waste  the  country,  and  force  the  Macedo- 
nians to  return  home  by  the  pressure  of  famine  ;  but  they  collected  an 
immense  army,  with  which  they  took  post  on  the  Granicus,  a  river 
that  flows  from  Mount  Ida  into  the  Propon'tis.  Alexander  did  not  hes- 
itate a  moment  in  engaging  the  enemy,  notwithstanding  the  vast  supe- 
riority of  the  hostile  forces.  He  forded  the  river  at  the  head  of  liis 
cavalry,  and,  after  being  exposed  to  great  personal  danger,  obtained  a 
decisive  victory,  with  the  loss  of  only  eighty-five  horsemen  and  thirty 
of  the  light  infantry.  This  glorious  achievement  was  followed  by  the 
subjugation  of  all  the  provinces  west  of  the  river  Halys,  which  had 
formed  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Lydia ;  and  before  the  first  campaign 
closed,  Alexander  was  the  undisputed  master  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  second  campaign  opened  with  the  reduction  of  Phrygia,  aflor 


136  ANCIENT  HISTOKV. 

which  ike  IMac  edonian  hero  entered  Cilicia,  and,  marching  through  ttie 
pass  called  the  Syrian  Gates,  reached  the  bay  of  Is'sus,  where  ho 
expected  to  meet  Darius  and  the  Persian  army.  But  that  monarch, 
persuaded  by  his  flatterers  that  Alexander  was  afraid  to  meet  him  and 
trembled  at  his  approach,  had  entered  the  defiles  in  quest  of  the 
Greeks,  and  was  thus  entangled  in  the  narrow  valleys  of  the  Syrian 
straits,  where  it  was  impossible  to  derive  advantage  from  his  vasi 
superiority  of  numbers.  Alexander  instantly  prepared  to  profit  by  this 
imprudence.  He  attacked  the  barbarian  columns  with  his  resistless 
phalanx,  and  broke  them  to  pieces.  The  valor  of  the  Greek  mercena- 
ries in  the  pay  of  Persia  for  a  time  rendered  the  victory  doubtful ;  but 
the  Macedonians,  victorious  in  every  other  part  of  the  field,  attacked 
this  body  in  flank,  and  put  it  to  a  total  rout.  Darius  fled  in  the  very 
beginning  of  the  engagement,  leaving  his  wife,  his  mother,  his  daugh  ■ 
ters,  and  his  infant  son,  to  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  The  Persians 
entangled  and  crowded  in  the  defiles  of  the  mountains,  suffered  so 
severely  in  their  flight,  that  they  made  no  effort  to  defend  their  camp, 
which,  with  all  its  vast  treasures,  became  the  prey  of  the  Macedonians. 
The  conduct  of  Alexander  after  this  unparalleled  victory  proved  that 
he  deserved  success.  He  treated  the  captive  Persian  princesses  with 
the  greatest  respect  and  kindness,  and  dismissed  without  ransom  the 
Greeks  whom  he  had  made  prisoners  while  fighting  against  their 
country. 

Before  invading  Upper  Asia,  Alexander  prudently  resolved  to  subdue 
the  maritime  provinces.  He  encountered  no  resistance  until  he 
demanded  to  be  admitted  into  the  city  of  Tyre,  when  the  inhabitants 
boldly  set  him  at  defiance.  It  would  be  inconsistent  with  our  narrow 
limits  to  describe  the  siege  of  this  important  place  (b.  c.  332).  Suffice 
it  to  say,  that,  after  a  tedious  siege  and  desperate  resistance.  Tyre  was 
taken  by  storm  and  its  inhabitants  either  butchered  or  enslaved.  This 
success  was  followed  by  the  submission  of  all  Palestine,  except  Gaza, 
which  made  as  obstinate  a  defence  as  Tyre,  and  was  as  severely  pun- 
ished. From  Gaza  the  Macedonians  entered  Egypt,  which  submitted 
to  them  almost  without  a  blow. 

Having  received,  during  the  winter,  considerable  reinforcements 
from  Greece,  P/lacedon,  and  Thrace,  Alexander  opened  his  fourth  cam- 
paign by  crossing  the  Euphrates  at  Thap'sacus  ;  thence  he  advanced 
to  the  Tigris,  and,  having  forded  that  river,  entered  the  plains  of  As- 
syria. He  found  Darius  with  an  immense  army,  composed  not  merely 
of  Persians,  but  of  the  wild  tribes  from  the  deserts  east  of  the  Caspi- 
an, encamped  near  the  village  of  Gaugamela ;  but  as  this  place  is  little 
known,  the  battle  that  decided  the  fate  of  an  empire  is  more  usually 
named  from  Arbela,  the  nearest  town  of  importance  to  the  plains  on 
which  it  was  fought  (b.  c.  331).  Having  halted  for  a  few  days  to 
refresh  his  men,  Alexander  advanced  early  in  the  morning  against  the 
vast  host  of  Darius.  Darius  led  his  forces  forward  with  so  little  skill 
that  the  horse  became  interming'.ed  with  the  foot,  and  the  attempt  to 
disentangle  them  broke  the  line.  Alexander,  forming  his  troops  into  a 
wedge,  occupied  this  gap,  and  pushing  right  forv/ard,  threw  the  Asiat- 
ics into  irretrievable  confusion.  The  Persian  cavalry  on  the  left  wing 
continued  to  maintain  the  fight  after  the  centre  was  broken,  but  when 


MACEDON. 


137 


Alexander,  w'uh.  a  select  squadron,  assailed  their  flank,  they  broke  tlieii 
lints  and  fled  at  full  gallop  from  the  field.  It  was  no  longer  a  battle, 
but  a  slaughter ;  forty  thousand  of  the  l)arbarians  were  slain,  while  the 
loss  of  the  Greeks  did  not  exceed  five  hundred  men.  The  triumph 
was,  however,  sullied  by  the  Avanton  destruction  of  Pcrscp'olis,  which 
Alexander  is  said  to  have  burned  at  the  instigation  of  an  Athenian 
courtesan,  when  heated  with  w ine  during  the  rejoicing  after  the  victory. 
The  first  intention  of  Darius  after  his  defeat  was  to  establish  him- 
self in  Media  ;  but  hearing  that  Alexander  was  approaching  Ecbatana 
he  fled  to  Hyrcania  with  a  small  escort.  Here  he  was  deposed  by  the 
satrap  Bessus,  and  thrown  into  chains.  On  receiving  this  intelligence, 
Alexander  advanced  against  Bessus  with  the  utmost  speed ;  but  he 
came  too  late  to  save  the  unhappy  Darius,  who  was  savagely  stabbed 
by  the  rebels,  and  left  to  expire  at  the  roadside.  His  fate  was  soon 
avenged  by  his  former  enemy.  Alexander  continued  the  pursuit  so 
vigorously,  that  Bessus  was  soon  taken,  and  put  to  death  with  the  most 
horrible  tortures.  Spitamenes,  and  several  other  satraps,  still  main- 
tained a  desperate  struggle  for  independence,  assisted  by  the  barbarous 
tribes  of  the  desert.  Four  years  Avere  spent  in  subduing  these  chiefs 
and  their  allies  ;  in  the  course  of  which  time  Alexander  conquered 
Bac'tria,  Sogdiana,  and  the  countries  now  included  in  southern  Tar- 
tary,  Khorassan,  Kabul  (b.  c.  327).  But,  still  desirous  of  further  tri- 
umphs, he  resolved  to  invade  India. 

While  Alexander  was  thus  engaged,  the  Lacedaemonians,  instigated 
by  their  warlike  monarch  A'gis,  declared  war  against  Macedon,  but 
were  speedily  subdued  by  Antip'ater.  They  sent  ambassadors  into 
Asia  to  supplicate  the  clemency  of  the  Macedonian  monarch,  and  were 
generously  pardoned  by  Alexander  (b.  c.  330).  Another  proof  of  the 
young  hero's  respect  for  the  ancient  Grecian  states,  was  his  permitting 
the  Athenians  to  banish  iEs'chines,  the  ancient  friend  of  Macedon, 
after  he  had  been  conquered  by  Demos'thenes  in  the  most  remarkable 
oratorical  contest  recorded  in  the  annals  of  eloquence.  iEs'chines 
accused  Ctes'iphon  for  having  proposed  that  a  golden  crown  should  be 
given  to  Demos'thenes  as  a  testimony  to  the  rectitude  of  his  political 
career.  iEs'chines  assailed  the  Avhole  course  of  policy  recommended 
by  Demos'thenes,  declaring  that  it  had  caused  the  ruin  of  Grecian  in- 
dependence. Demos'thenes  defended  his  political  career  so  trium- 
phantly, that  iEs'chines  was  sent  into  banishment  for  having  instituted 
a  malicious  prosecution. 

Alexander,  having  made  all  necessary  preparations  for  the  invasion 
of  India  (b.  c.  327),  advanced  toward  that  country  by  the  route  of  Kan- 
dahar, which  is  that  generally  used  by  caravans  to  and  from  Persia  at 
the  present  day.  One  division  of  his  army,  having  pushed  forward  to 
the  banks  of  the  In'dus,  prepared  everything  requisite  for  fording  the 
river,  while  the  king  was  engaged  in  subduing  such  cities  and  fortresses 
as  might  be  of  service  in  forming  magazines,  should  he  advance,  or  se- 
curing a  retreat,  if  he  found  it  necessary  to  return.  No  opposition 
was  made  to  the  passage  of  the  In'dus.  Alexander  received  on  ita 
eastern  bank  the  submission  of  Tax'iles,  a  powerful  Indian  prince,  who 
supplied  him  with  seven  thousand  Indian  horse  as  auxiliaries.  Continuing 
his  march  through  the  comitry  now  called  the  Punj-ab,  or  land  of  the 


138  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

five  livers,  he  reached  the  banks  of  the  Hydas'pes  (Jh/him),  and  found 
the  opposite  side  occupied  by  an  Indian  prince,  called  Porus  by  the 
historians,  though  that  name,  like  Bren'nus  among  the  Gauls,  and  Da- 
rius among  the  Persians,  more  properly  designated  an  office  than  an 
individual. 

The  Indian  army  was  more  numerous  than  the  Macedonian,  and  it 
had,  besides,  the  support  of  three  hundred  war-chariots  and  two  hun- 
dred elephants.  Alexander  could  not  pass  the  river  in  the  presence  of 
such  a  host  without  danger ;  but  by  a  series  of  stratagems  he  lulled  the 
enemy  into  false  security,  and  reached  the  right  bank  with  little  inter- 
pjption.  A  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Indians  were  totally  defeated, 
md  Porus  himself  made  prisoner.  The  conqueror  continued  his  march 
eastward,  crossing  the  Aces'ines  (Chuncih)  and  the  Hyaraotes  (Ravi) ; 
but  when  he  reached  the  Hy'phasis  (Sutleje),  his  troops  unanimously 
refused  to  continue  their  march  ;  and  Alexander  was  reluctantly  forced 
*.o  make  the  Punj-ab  the  limit  of  his  conquests.  He  determined,  how 
ever,  to  return  into  central  Asia  by  a  different  route  from  that  by  which 
he  had  advanced,  and  caused  vessels  to  be  built  on  the  Hydas'pes  to  trans 
port  his  troops  down  that  stream  to  its  junction  with  the  In'dus,  and 
thence  to  the  ocean.  His  navigation  employed  several  months,  being 
frequently  retarded  by  the  hostilities  of  the  natives,  especially  the  war- 
like tribe  of  the  Mal'li.  After  having  wistfully  surveyed  the  waters  of 
the  Indian  ocean,  Alexander  determined  to  proceed  toward  Persepolis 
through  the  barren  solitudes  of  Gedrosia  (d.  c.  325),  while  his  fleet, 
under  Near'chus,  was  employed  in  the  survey  of  the  Persian  gulf,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  that  of  the  Euphrates.  He  endured  many 
hardships,  but  at  length  arrived,  with  less  loss  than  might  reasonably 
have  been  anticipated,  in  the  fertile  provinces  of  Persia.  His  active 
mind  was  next  directed  to  securing  the  vast  empire  he  had  acquired, 
and  joining  Europe  to  Asia  by  the  bonds  of  his  commercial  intercourse. 
No  better  proof  of  the  wisdom  of  his  plans  can  be  given  than  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  cities  he  founded  as  trading  marts  are  still  the  places 
of  most  commercial  importance  in  their  respective  countries.  But 
while  he  was  thus  honorably  and  usefully  employed,  his  career  was 
cut  short  by  a  fever,  the  consequence  of  excessive  drinking — a  vice  in 
which  all  the  Macedonians  were  prone  to  indulge  after  the  fatigues  of 
war  (b.  c.  324,  May  28th).  His  sudden  death  prevented  laim  from 
making  any  arrangements  respecting  the  succession  or  a  regency  ;  but 
in  his  last  agony  he  gave  his  ring  to  Perdic'cas,  a  Macedonian  noble- 
man who  had  obtained  the  cliief  place  in  his  favor  after  t^-*  death  of 
Hephaes'tion. 

Section  III. — Dissolution  of  the  Macedonian  Empire. 

FROM    B.  C.  324    TO    B.  C.  301. 

Perdic'cas  was  the  only  one  of  Alexander's  followers  who  refused 
a  portion  of  his  treasures  when  the  young  hero  shared  them  among  his 
friends,  just  before  his  invasion  of  Asia.  Possessing  no  small  share  of 
the  enthusiasm  of  his  late  illustrious  master,  tempered  by  policy  and 
prudence,  Perdic'cas  seemed  the  best  fitted  of  aU  the  gener£.Is  to  c(  a 


MACEDON.  139 

solidate  the  mighty  em;)ire  which  Alexander  had  acquired.  But  the 
Macedonian  nobles  possessed  a  more  than  ordinary  share  of  the  pride 
and  turbulence  that  distinguish  a  feudal  aristocracy  ;  they  had  formed 
several  conspiracies  against  the  life  of  the  late  monarch,  by  whose  ex- 
ploits and  generosity  they  had  so  largely  profited  ;  and  consequently 
they  were  not  disposed  to  submit  to  one  who  had  so  recently  been  their 
equal.  Scarcely  had  the  regency  been  formed,  when  the  Macedonian 
infantry,  at  the  instigation  of  Meleager,  chose  for  their  sovereign  Ar- 
rhidaj'us,  the  imbecile  brother  of  Alexander.  The  civil  war  conse- 
quent on  this  measure  was  averted  at  the  very  instant  it  was  about  to 
burst  forth  by  the  resignation  of  Arrhidoc'us  ;  and  as  his  incapacity 
soon  became  notorious,  all  parties  concurred  in  the  propriety  of  a  new 
arrangement.  It  was  accordingly  agreed  that  Perdic'cas  should  be  re 
gent,  but  that  Arrhidae'us  should  retain  the  shadow  of  royalty  ;  pi)  jvision 
was  made  for  the  child  with  which  Roxana,  Alexander's  widow,  was 
pregnant ;  and  the  principal  provinces  were  divided  among  the  Mace 
donian  generals,  with  the  powers  previously  exercised  by  the  Persian 
satraps. 

During  these  dissensions  the  body  of  Alexander  lay  unburied  and 
neglected,  and  it  was  not  until  two  years  after  his  death  that  his  re- 
mains were  consisned  to  the  tomb.  But  his  followers  still  showed 
their  respect  for  his  memory,  by  retaining  the  feeble  Arrhidae'us  on  the 
throne,  and  preventing  the  marriage  of  Perdic'cas  with  Cleopatra,  the 
daughter  of  Philip  ;  a  union  which  manifestly  was  projected  to  open  a 
way  to  the  throne. 

But  while  this  project  of  marriage  occupied  the  attention  of  the  re- 
gent, a  league  had  secretly  been  formed  for  his  destruction,  and  the 
storm  burst  forth  from  a  quarter  whence  it  was  least  expected.  Alex- 
ander, in  his  march  against  Darius,  had  been  contented  with  receiving 
the  nominal  submission  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  in- 
habited by  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the  Cappadocians  and  Paphlagonians. 
Impatient  of  subjection,  these  savage  nations  asserted  their  indepey-- 
dence  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  chose  Ariarathes  for  their 
leader.  Perdic'cas  sent  against  them  Eumenes,  who  had  hitherto  ful- 
filled the  peaceful  duties  of  a  secretary  ;  and  sent  orders  to  Antig'onus. 
and  L'^onatus,  the  governors  of  western  Asia,  to  join  the  expedition 
witn  all  their  forces.  These  commands  were  disobeyed,  and  Perdic'- 
cas wac  forced  to  march  with  the  royal  army  against  the  insurgents. 
He  easily  defeated  these  undisciplined  troops,  but  sullied  his  victory 
by  unnecessary  cruelty.  On  his  return  he  summoned  the  satraps  of 
western  Asia  to  appear  before  his  tribunal,  and  answer  for  their  disobe 
dience.  Antig'onus,  seeing  his  danger,  entered  into  a  league  with 
Ptolemy,  the  satrap  of  Egypt,  Antip'ater  the  governor  of  Macedon,  and 
several  other  noblemen,  to  crush  the  regency.  Perdic'cas,  on  the 
other  hand,  leaving  Eumenes  to  guard  Lower  Asia,  marched  with  the 
choicest  divisions  of  the  royal  army  against  Ptolemy,  whose  craft  and 
ability  he  dreaded  even  more  than  his  power. 

Antip'ater  and  Crat'erus  were  early  in  the  field  ;  they  crossed  the 
Hellespont  with  the  army  that  had  been  left  for  the  defence  of  Mace- 
don, and  on  their  landing  were  joined  by  Neoptol'emus  the  governor 
of  Phrygia.     Their  new  confederate  informed  the  Macedonian  leaders 


140  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

that  the  army  of  Eumenes  was  weak,  disorderly-j  and  incapable  of 
making  the  slightest  resistance.  Seduced  by  this  false  information, 
they  divided  their  forces  ;  Antip'ater  hastening  through  Phrygia  in  pur- 
suit of  Perdic'cas,  while  Crat'erus  and  Neoptol'emus  marched  against 
Eumenes.  They  encountered  him  in  the  Trojan  plain,  and  were  com- 
pletely defeated.  Neoptol'emus  was  slain  in  the  first  onset,  and  Crat'- 
erus  lay  mortally  wounded,  undistinguished  among  the  heaps  of  dead. 
Eumenes,  having  learned  the  state  of  Crat'erus,  hastened  to  relieve 
him  ;  he  found  him  in  the  agonies  of  death,  and  bitterly  lamented  the 
misfortunes  that  had  changed  old  friends  into  bitter  enemies.  Immedi- 
ately after  this  great  victory,  Eumenes  sent  intelligence  of  his  success 
to  Perdic'cas  ;  but  two  days  before  the  messenger  reached  the  royal 
camp  the  regent  was  no  more.  His  army,  wearied  by  the  long  siege 
of  Peldsium,  became  dissatisfied  ;  their  mutinous  dispositions  were  se- 
cretly encouraged  by  the  emissaries  of  Ptolemy.  Py'thon,  who  had 
been  formerly  employed  by  the  regent  in  the  ruthless  massacre  of  some 
Greek  mercenaries  for  disobedience  of  orders,  organized  a  conspiracy, 
and  '^erdic'cas  was  murdered  in  his  tent  (b.  c.  321).  Had  the  news 
of  the  victory  obtained  by  Eumenes  reached  the  camp  earlier,  the  re- 
gent's life  might  have  been  saved  ;  but  now  the  news  served  only  to 
aggravate  the  malice  of  the  insurgent  satraps. 

In  the  meantime  a  brief  struggle  for  independence  had  taken  place 
in  Greece,  which  is  commonly  called  the  Lamian  war,  from  the  town 
in  whose  neighborhood  the  principal  contests  occurred.  Instigated  by 
the  orators  Hyper'ides  and  Demos'thenes,  the  Athenians  boldly  pro- 
claimed themselves  the  restorers  of  Grecian  freedom,  and  called  on  the 
other  states  to  second  them  in  the  great  struggle  for  liberty.  The 
iEtolians,  and  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  Doris  and  Phocis,  eagerly  re- 
sponded to  the  summons ;  but  of  the  other  states,  Thebes  no  longer 
existed,  Spar'ta  was  too  proud  to  act  under  her  ancient  rival,  and  the 
Achasans  and  Arcadians  too  prudent  to  risk  their  present  tranquillity 
for  the  doubtful  chances  of  war  (b.  c.  323).  Alarmed  by  the  intelli 
gence  of  this  confederacy,  Antip'ater  marched  to  secure  the  straits  ot 
Thermop'ylae  ;  but  he  was  met  by  the  Athenians  under  Leos'thenes, 
and  his  forces  put  to  the  rout.  The  remnant  of  the  Macedonian  army 
sought  refuge  in  Lamia,  a  strong  fortress  on  the  Malian  gulf,  which  the 
victorious  army  closely  besieged.  Unfortunately  for  the  Athenians, 
Leos'thenes  was  slain  in  a  sally,  and  the  command  of  the  confederates 
intrusted  to  Aaitip'hilus,  a  general  of  great  valor,  but  deficient  in  skill 
and  discretion.  Intoxicated  by  a  second  victory  over  the  Macedonians, 
he  kept  careless  guard,  of  which  Antip'ater  took  advantage  to  break 
through  the  hostile  hues,  and  form  a  junction  with  a  fresh  army  from 
Macedon.  Thus  reinforced,  he  attacked  the  confederates,  and  com- 
pletely annihilated  their  army.  The  Athenians  had  no  resource  bu; 
submission :  they  were  compelled  to  abolish  the  democracy,  to  receive 
garrisons  into  their  fortresses,  and  to  give  up  their  patriotic  orators  to 
the  conqueror's  vengeance.  The  cruel  Antip'ater  put  Hyper'ides  to 
death,  after  having  subjected  him  to  insult  and  torture.  Demos'thene-s 
escaped  a  similar  fate  by  committing  suicide.  Undismayed  by  these 
calamities,  the  iEtolians  resolved  to  continue  the  war ';  and  Antip'ater, 


MACEDON.  141 

eagei  to  march  into  Asia  against  Per'diccas,  was  forced  to  grant  them 
peace  on  favorable  conditions. 

As  soon  as  Ptolemy  had  been  informed  of  the  murder  of  Per'dic- 
cas, he  came  to  the  royal  army  with  a  large  supply  of  wine  and  pro- 
visions. His  kindness  and  courteous  manners  so  won  upon  these  tur- 
bulent soldiers,  that  they  unanimously  offered  him  the  regency  ;  but  he 
had  the  prudence  to  decline  so  dangerous  an  office.  On  his  refusal, 
the  feeble  Arrhidae'us  and  the  traitor  Py'thon  were  appointed  to  the  re- 
gency, just  as  the  news  arrived  of  the  recent  victory  of  Eumenes. 
This  intelligence  filled  the  royal  army  with  indignation.  Crat'erus  had 
been  always  a  favorite  with  the  soldiers  ;  Eumenes  was  despised  on 
account  of  his  former  unwarlike  occupation.  They  hastily  passed  a 
vote  proclaiming  Eumenes  and  his  adherents  public  enemies,  and  de- 
nouncing all  who  afforded  them  support  or  protection.  The  advance  of 
an  army  to  give  effect  to  these  decrees  was  delayed  by  a  new  revolu- 
tion. Eurid'ice,  the  wife  of  Arrhidae'us,  a  woman  of  great  ambition 
and  considerable  talent  for  intrigue,  wrested  the  regency  from  her  feeble 
husband  and  Py'thon,  but  was  stripped  of  power  on  the  arrival  of  An- 
tip'ater,  who  reproached  the  Macedonians  for  submitting  to  the  govern- 
ment of  a  woman  ;  and  being  ably  supported  by  Antig'onus  and  Seleii- 
cus,  obtained  for  himself  the  office  of  regent. 

No  sooner  had  Antip'ater  been  invested  with  supreme  power,  than  he 
sent  Arrhidffi'us  and  Eurid'ice  prisoners  to  Pel'la,  and  intrusted  the 
conduct  of  the  war  against  Eumenes  to  the  crafty  and  ambitious  Antig'- 
onus. Cassan'der,  the  son  of  Antip'ater,  joined  the  expedition  with  a 
thousand  horse,  and,  being  himself  a  selfish  and  cunning  statesmen,  he 
soon  penetrated  the  secret  plans  of  Antig'onus,  and  vainly  warned  the 
regent  of  his  dangerous  designs.  A  quarrel  soon  took  place  between 
the  worthy  colleagues  ;  and  Cassan'der  returned  to  Europe,  where  he 
was  about  to  commence  a  career  as  bold  and  bloody  as  that  of  Antio-'- 
onus  in  Asia.  Eumenes  was  unable  to  cope  with  the  forces  sent 
against  him ;  having  been  defeated  in  the  open  field,  he  took  shelter  in 
Nora,  a  Cappadocian  city,  and  maintained  a  vigorous  defence,  rejecting 
the  many  tempting  offers  by  which  Antig'onus  endeavored  to  win  him 
to  the  support  of  his  designs  (b.  c.  318).  The  death  of  Antip'ater  pro- 
duced a  new  revolution  in  the  empire  ;  and  Eumenes  in  the  meantime 
escaped  from  Nora,  accompanied  by  his  principal  friends,  on  fleet 
horses  thai  had  been  trained  for  this  especial  service. 

Antip'ater,  at  his  death,  bequeathed  the  regency  to  Polysper'chon, 
excluding,  his  son  Cassan'der  from  power  on  accomit  of  his  criminal  in- 
trigues with  the  wicked  and  ambitious  Eurid'ice.  Though  a  brave 
general,  Polysper'chon  had  not  the  qualifications  of  a  statesman :  he 
provoked  the  powerful  resentment  of  Antig'onus  by  entering  into  a 
close  alliance  with  Eumenes  ;  and  he  permitted  Cassan'der  to  strengthen 
himself  in  southern  Greece,  where  he  seized  the  strong  fortress  of  Mu- 
nyc'hia.  His  next  measures  were  of  still  more  questionable  policy, 
he  recalled  Olym'pias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  whom  Antip'ater  had 
banished  on  account  of  her  turbulent  disposition ;  and  he  proclaimed 
his  intention  of  restoring  democracy  in  the  Grecian  states.  The  lattei 
edict  was  received  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  at  Athens  ;  an  urgent 
embassy  was  sent  to  the  regent,  requesting  him  to  send  an  army  to 


H3  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

protect  the  city  from  Cassan'der  and  his  partisans.  Polysper'chon  sent 
xiis  son  Alexander  with  a  considerable  force  into  A^ticq  ;  and  no  sooner 
were  news  of  his  approach  received,  than  the  restoration  of  democracy 
was  voted  by  a  tumultuous  assembly,  and  a  decree  passed  for  proceed- 
ing against  all  aristocrats,  as  capital  enemies  of  the  state  (b.  c.  317) 
Several  illustrious  individuals,  and  among  others  the  virtuous  Phocion 
fell  victims  to  tins  burst  of  popular  violence,  which  the  regent  made  no 
ofTort  to  check  or  control. 

Cassan'der,  however,  remained  master  of  the  ports  of  Athens,  and 
was  thus  enabled  to  fit  out  a  considerable  fleet,  which  he  sent  to  the 
Thracian  Bos'phorus,  under  the  command  of  his  friend  Nicanor,  to  sec- 
ond the  enterprises  of  Antig'onus.  Nicanor  was  at  first  defeated  by 
the  royal  navy  ;  but  being  reinforced,  he  renewed  the  engagement,  and 
captured  all  the  enemies'  ships  except  the  admiral's  galley.  The 
news  of  this  victory  rendered  the  power  of  Antig'onus  paramount  in 
lower  Asia,  and  gave  Cassan'der  possession  of  Athens.  The  Athe- 
nians, however,  suff'ered  no  injury  from  the  change,  the  government 
of  their  city  having  been  intrusted  to  Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  ruled 
them  with  justice  and  moderation  during  ten  years. 

Polysper'chon,  unable  to  drive  Cassan'der  from  Attica,  entered  the 
Peloponnesus  to  punish  the  Arcadians,  and  engaged  in  a  fruitless  siege 
of  Megalop'olis.  In  the  meantime  Olym'pias,  to  whom  he  had  con- 
fided the  government  of  Macedon,  seized  Arrhidae'us  and  Eurid'ice, 
whom  she  caused  to  be  murdered  in  prison.  Cassan'der  hasted,  at  the 
head  of  his  all  forces,  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  mistress :  Olym'pias, 
unable  to  meet  him  in  the  field,  fled  to  Pyd'na  ;  but  the  city  was  forced 
to  surrender  after  a  brief  defence,  and  Olym'pias  was  immediately  put 
to  death.  Among  the  captives  were  Roxana  the  v/idow,  Alexander 
JE'giis,  the  posthumous  son,  and  Thessalonica,  the  youngest  daughter 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  Cassan'der  sought  and  obtained  the  hand  of 
the  latter  princess,  and  thus  consoled  himself  for  the  loss  of  his  be- 
loved Eurid'ice.  By  this  marriage  he  acquired  such  influence,  that 
Polysper'chon  did  not  venture  to  return  home,  but  continued  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  where  he  retained  for  some  time  a  shadow  of  authority 
over  the  (ew  Macedonians  who  still  clung  to  the  family  of  Alexander. 

In  Asia,  Eumenes  maintained  the  royal  cause  against  Antig'onus, 
though  deserted  by  all  the  satraps,  and  harassed  by  the  mutinous  dis- 
position of  his  troops,  especially  the  Argyras'pides,  a  body  of  gxiarda 
that  Alexander  had  raised  to  attend  his  own  person,  and  presented  with 
the  silver  shields  from  which  they  derived  their  name.  After  a  long 
struggle,  both  armies  joined  in  a  decisive  engagement ;  the  Argyras'- 
pides  broke  the  hostile  infantry,  but  learning  that  their  baggage  had  in 
the  meantime  been  captured  by  the  light  troops  of  the  enemy,  they 
mutinied  in  the  very  moment  of  victory,  and  delivered  their  leader, 
bound  with  his  own  sash,  into  the  hands  of  his  merciless  enemy  (b.  c. 
315).  The  faithful  Eumenes  was  put  to  death  by  the  traitorous  Antig'- 
onus ;  but  he  punished  the  Argyras'pides  for  their  treachery ;  justly 
dreading  their  turbulence,  he  sent  them  in  small  detachments  against 
the  barbarians  ;  and  thus  sacrificed  in  detail  the  veterans  that  had  over- 
thrown the  Persian  empire. 

Antig'onus,  immediately  after  his  victory,  began  openly  to  aim  at  the 


MACEDON.  143 

sovereignty  of  the  entire  Macedonian  empire.  The  weight  of  his  pcwet 
was  {irst  directed  against  the  satraps  whose  rebellious  conduct  had  en- 
abled hun  to  triumph  over  Eumenes.  Peuces'tes  of  Persia  was  ban- 
ished, Py'thon  of  Media  put  to  death,  and  Seleuc'us  of  Bab'ylon  could 
only  escape  a  similar  fate  by  a  precipitate  flight  into  Egypt.  The  Ma- 
cedonian governors  in  the  west,  instigated  by  Seleuc'us,  formed  a 
league  for  mutual  defence,  and  sent  an  embassy  to  Antig'onus,  who  an- 
swered ;heir  proposals  with  menace  and  insult.  But  at  the  same  time 
he  prepared  to  wage  a  more  effectual  war  than  one  of  words :  while 
his  armies  overran  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  he  roused  the  southern 
Greeks,  the  iEtolians,  and  Epirotes,  to  attack  Cassan'der  in  Macedon. 
He  bribed  the  mountaineers  and  northern  barbarians  to  attack  Lysim'- 
achus  in  Thrace,  while  his  son  Demetrius,  afterward  named  Poliorce- 
tes,  or  the  conqueror  of  cities,  marched  against  the  Egyptian  Ptolemy. 

The  first  important  operations  of  the  war  took  place  in  southern 
Syria.  Ptolemy  overthrew  Demetrius  near  Gaza,  and  in  consequence 
of  his  victory,  became  master  of  Palestine  and  Phcenicia.  But  the 
Egyptians  were  defeated  in  their  turn  at  the  commencement  of  the 
next  campaign  ;  their  recent  acquisitions  were  lost  as  rapidly  as  they 
had  been  gained ;  and  Demetrius  would  have  invaded  their  country 
with  great  prospect  of  success,  had  he  not  been  involved  in  an  unwise 
contest  with  the  Arabs. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  excavated  city  of  Petra  was  the 
great  depot  of  the  caravan-trade  between  the  southern  countries  of 
Asia  and  northern  Africa.  Athenae'us,  a  general  in  the  army  of  Antig'- 
onus, was  sent  to  seize  its  rich  stores :  he  surprised  the  inhabitants  by 
a  rapid  march  and  unexpected  attack,  and  was  returning  laden  with 
plunder  to  join  the  main  army ;  but  the  Nabathae'an  Arabs,  enraged  by 
their  loss,  hastily  collected  their  forces,  and  urging  their  dromedaries 
through  the  desert,  overtook  Athena^'us  near  Gaza,  where  they  not  only 
recovered  the  spoil,  but  almost  annihilated  his  army.  Demetrius 
eagerly  hasted  to  avenge  this  loss,  but  he  was  baffled  by  the  fastnesses 
of  Arabia  Petraj'a  •  and  when  he  returned  into  Syria,  he  received  intel- 
ligence that  directed  all  his  attention  to  the  state  of  upper  Asia. 

After  Ptolemy's  victory  at  Gaza,  Seleuc'us,  with  a  small  but  gallant 
band  of  attendants,  boldly  threw  himself  into  his  ancient  satrapy  of 
Bab'ylon,  and  was  received  with  so  much  enthusiasm,  that  he  obtained 
possession  of  all  his  former  power  without  striking  a  blow.  The  Per- 
sian and  Median  satraps  appointed  by  Antig'onus  hastened  to  destroy 
the  dangerous  enemy  that  had  thus  suddenly  arisen ;  but  they  were 
totally  routed  after  a  brief  but  ineffectual  struggle  (b.  c.  312).  This 
battle,  from  which  a  new  dynasty  may  be  dated,  forms  an  important 
epoch  i..  Grecian  history,  called  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae. 

Alarmed  by  these  occurrences,  Antig'onus  hastened  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  his  other  opponents ;  and  a  treaty  was  ratified  which  was 
pregnant  with  the  elements  of  future  war.  Cassan'der  agreed  to  re- 
store the  freedom  of  the  Grecian  cities,  without  the  slightest  intention 
of  performing  his  promise.  Ptolemy  consented  that  Antig'onus  should 
retain  his  present  possessions,  while  he  was  preparing  a  fleet  to  seize 
the  Asiatic  islands,  previous  to  invading  Syria  ;  Lysim'achus  was  re- 
solved to  annex  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  to  his  satrapy 


144  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  Thrace  ;  and  all  agreed  to  acknowledge  the  son  of  Alexander  for 
their  sovereign,  though  a  resolution  had  been  already  formed  for  his 
destruction.  Alarmed  by  the  murmurs  of  the  Macedonians,  Cassan'- 
der  caused  Roxana,  Alexander  iE'gus,  and  Her'cules  (the  last  survivor 
of  the  great  conqueror),  to  be  assassinated ;  and  soon  after  consigned 
the  princess  Cleopatra  to  the  same  fate,  dreading  that  she  might  bo 
;tow  her  hand  on  some  of  the  rival  satraps. 

It  was  not  long  before  Antig'onus  discovered  that  he  had  been  de- 
i;eived  in  the  recent  treaty  by  Cassan'der  and  Ptolemy.  He  sent  his 
son  Demetrius  into  Greece,  under  the  pretence  of  restoring  the  liberty 
of  the  states  ;  and  Athens,  still  enamored  of  the  memory  of  its  freedom, 
opened  its  gates  to  the  young  prince  (b.  c.  308).  Thence  he  sailed  to 
Cy'prus,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Egyptian  fleet  that  came 
to  protect  the  island.  He  was  baffled,  however,  in  an  attempt  to  invade 
Egypt ;  and  when  he  went  thence  to  besiege  Rhodes,  he  was  recalled 
to  Greece  by  the  prayers  of  the  x\thenians,  who  were  exposed  to  immi- 
nent danger  from  the  power  of  Cassan'der.  • 

The  success  of  Demetrius  induced  his  father  to  nominate  him  cap- 
tain-general of  Greece — an  injudicious  measure,  which  led  to  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  confederacy  against  Antig'onus.  Cassan'der  renewed 
his  attacks  on  southern  Greece  ;  Ptolemy  entered  Syria  ;  Lysim'achus, 
with  an  army  of  veterans,  invaded  Thrace ;  while  Seleiicus  marched 
westward  with  the  numerous  forces  of  upper  Asia,  including  four  him- 
dred  and  eighty  elephants.  The  junction  of  Lysim'achus  and  Seleu- 
cus  in  Phrygia  necessarily  brought  on  a  decisive  engagement,  which 
Antig'onus,  reinforced  by  his  gallant  son  Demetrius,  showed  no  anxiety 
to  avoid  (b.  c.  301).  The  battle  that  decided  the  fate  of  an  empire  was 
fought  at  Ip'sus  in  Phrygia :  it  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Antig'- 
onus, and  the  destruction  of  the  power  that  he  had  raised.  The  conse- 
quences of  this  victory  were,  a  new  partition  of  the  provinces,  and  the 
erection  of  the  satrapies  into  independent  kingdoms.  Seleiicus  became 
monarch  of  upper  Asia ;  Ptolemy  added  Syria  and  Palestine  to  Egypt ; 
Lysim'achus  obtained  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  as  an 
appendage  to  his  kingdom  of  Thrace  ;  and  the  services  of  Cassan'- 
der were  rewarded,  not  only  with  the  sovereignty  of  Macedon  and 
Greece,  but  also  of  the  rich  province  of  Cilicia.  Thus,  in  the  course 
of  a  single  generation,  the  mighty  empire  of  Alexander  had  risen  to 
unparalleled  greatness,  and  fallen  into  hopeless  ruin  ;  while  not  a  single 
descendant  of  the  illustrious  founder  was  spared  to  transmit  his  name  tc 
posterity.  The  most  enduring  memorial  of  his  policy  was  the  city  of 
Alexandria,  founded  during  his  Egyptian  campaign,  which  became  one 
of  the  greatest  commercial  marts  of  antiquity,  and  is  still  at  the  head 
of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  the  Levant. 


MAf!KDON  AND   C-JllEECK.  U3 


CHAPTER  XI 1. 

HISTORY  OF  f HE  STATES  THAT  AROSE  FROxM  THE 
DISMEMBERMENT  OF 

THE    MACEDONIAN   EMPIRE. 

Section  I.— The  History  of  Mace  J  on  and  Greece  from  the  Batth  of  fysm 

to  the  Roman  Conauest. 

FROM  B.  C.  301     TO  B.  C.   146. 

After  the  fatal  battle  of  Ip'sus,  Demetrius  fled  to  Greece,  hoping  u- 
obtain  a  refuge  from  the  Athenians,  whom  he  had  essentially  served  in 
the  days  of  his  prosperity  ;  but  the  harbors  and  gates '  of  the  city  were 
closed  against  him.  Having  obtained,  however,  the  restoration  of  the 
Biiips  and  money  he  had  deposited  there,  he  established  himself  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  commenced  a  desultory  naval  war  against  Lysim'- 
achus.  Seleucus,  who  now  transferred  to  Lysim'achus  the  jealousy  of 
which  the  fallen  fortunes  of  Demetrius  could  no  longer  be  an  object, 
sought  an  alliance  with  his  ancient  enemy,  and  married  Stratonice, 
the  daughter  of  Demetrius,  and  this  union  was  equally  advantageous 
to  both  parties. 

Cassan'der  did  not  long  survive  the  establishment  of  his  power  :  on 
his  death  (b.  c.  296),  he  left  Macedonia  to  his  three  sons,  of  whom 
Philip  speedily  followed  his  father  to  the  grave.  The  survivors  quar- 
relled about  the  division  of  their  inheritance.  Antipater  murdered  his 
mother  Thessalonica,  on  account  of  the  favor  she  showed  to  his  brother 
Alexander.  The  vengeance  of  his  brother  being,  however,  supported* 
by  the  general  feeling  of  the  Macedonians,  he  fled  to  the  court  of  his 
father-in-law  Lysim'achus,  where  he  died  prematurely.  Dreading  the 
resentment  of  the  Thracian  monarch,  Alexander  sought  the  aid  of  Pyr'- 
rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  both  entered  Ma- 
cedon,  in  the  hope  of  gaining  some  advantage.  The  ambition  of 
Demetrius  soon  provoked  the  jealousy  of  the  son  of  Cassan'der,  he 
grew  jealous  of  his  ally,  and  attempted  to  remove  so  formidable  a  coia- 
petitor  by  stratagem ;  but  he  was  counterplotted  and  slain.  The  va- 
cant  throne  was  seized  by  Demeti.us,  who  possessed,  in  addition  to 
Macedon,  Thessaly,  a  great  portion  of  southern  Greece,  with  the  prov- 
inces of  At'tica  and  Meg'aris,  to  which  after  a  fierce  resistance,  he  ad- 
ded Boeotia.  He  might  have  enjoyed  this  extensive  realm  in  tranquillity, 
but  his  restless  ambition  led  him  to  form  plans  for  the  recovery  of  his 
father's  power  in  Asia. 

Seleucus  and  Ptolemy,  in  great  alarm  at  the  sudden  appearance  of  ^ 

10 


146  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ri^al,  formidable  by  the  revived  inlluence  of  his  father's  claim,  and  still 
more  by  his  personal  qualities,  roused  Lysim'achus,  king  of  Thracfe 
and  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  to  attack  him  at  the  same  time.  The 
Macedonians,  terrified  by  such  a  confederacy,  mutinied  ;  and  Demelriua 
fled,  disguised  as  a  common  soldier,  into  the  Peloponnesus,  which  was 
governed  by  his  son  Antig'onus  (b.  c.  287).  Pyr'rhus  obtained  posses^ 
sion  of  the  vacant  kingdom ;  but  after  a  brief  reign  of  seven  months, 
he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  superior  power  or  popularity  of  Lysim'- 
achus,  and  retire  to  his  native  Epirus.  Demetrius  had,  in  the  meantime, 
sailed'  to  Asia,  with  the  hope  of  seizing  the  provinces  belonging  to 
Lysim'achus  (b.  c.  286) ;  but  he  was  driven  into  Cilicia,  and  forced  to 
surrender  to  his  father-in-law  Seleucus,  by  whom  he  was  detained  iu 
prison  until  the  day  of  his  death  (b.  c.  284).  His  son  Antig'onus,  how- 
ever, maintained  himself  in  the  Peloponnesus,  waiting  with  patience  a 
favoral)le  opportunity  of  restoring  the  fortunes  o£  his  family. 

Lysim'achus  was  unfortunate  in  his  domestic  relations  :  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  queen,  the  wicked  Arsinoe,  he  put  to  death  his  gallant  son 
Agathoc'les,  upon  which  Cassan'dra,  the  widow  of  the  young  prince, 
with  her  brother  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  fled  to  the  court  of  Seleucus,  and 
stimulated  that  prince  to  war.  Lysim'achus  was  defeated  and  slain 
(b.  c.  282) ;  but  in  the  following  year  Seleucus  was  murdered  by  Ptole- 
my Ceradnus  who  availed  himself  of  the  treasures  of  his  victim,  and 
the  yet  remaining  troops  of  Lysim'achus,  to  usurp  the  throne  of  Mace- 
don.  In  the  same  year  that  Seleucus  fell  (b.  c.  281)  ;  Pyr'rhus  invaded 
Italy  as  an  ally  of  the  Tarentines ;  the  Acha3an  league  was  revived  in 
southern  Greece  ;  and  several  Asiatic  provinces,  especially  Cappad(>- 
cia,  Armenia,  and  Pon'tus,  in  the  north,  and  Par'thia  and  Bac'tria  in  the 
east,  became  independent  kingdoms. 

The  revolts  in  Asia  against  the  successors  of  Alexander,  appear  to 
have  arisen  at  least  as  much  from  religious  as  political  motives.  It  was 
part  of  the  great  conqueror's  plan  to  impress  a  uniform  character  on  all 
the  lauds  he  subdued,  and  in  every  one  of  them  to  constitute  society 
afresh  on  the  Grecian  model.  This  was  called  an  effort  to  Hdlcriize 
the  east.  But  the  Asiatics  clung  obstinately  to  their  institutions,  whether 
good  or  bad,  as  they  have  done  in  all  subsequent  ages,  and  Alexander's 
successors  in  central  and  western  Asia,  by  assailing  the  religion  of  the 
people,  provoked  fierce  insurrections,  which  led  to  the  entire  loss  of 
Persia  and  the  perilous  insurrection  of  the  Jews  under  the  gallant  Mac- 
cabees. 

Ptolemy  Ceraunus  did  not  long  retain  the  crown  of  Macedon,  which 
he  had  procured  by  treachery  and  assassination.  An  innumerable  mul- 
titude of  Gau's,  who  had,  about  two  centuries  before,  settled  in  Pan- 
nonia,  driven  by  want,  or  perhaps  instigated  by  their  restless  disposition, 
poured  into  Thrace  and  Macedon,  desolating  the  entire  country  with 
the  reckless  fury  of  ferocious  savages.  Ceraunus  led  an  army  against 
them,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  (b.  c.  279).  In  the  following  year, 
his  successor  Sosthenes  met  the  same  fate  ;  and  the  Gauls,  under  the 
guidance  of  their  Brenn,  or  chief,  advanced  into  southern  Greece. 
The  Athenians,  aided  by  the  iEtolians,  made  a  brave  defence  at  the 
straits  of  Thermop'ylae  ;  but  the  latter  being  called  home  to  defend  then 
own  country,  invaded  by  a  Gallic  division,  the  Athenians  were  unaWo 


MACEDON  AND  GREECE.  14"} 

any  longer  to  defend  the  pass,  and  the  main  body  of  the  Gauls,  entering 
Phocis,  marched  to  plunder  Del'phi.  Here,  however,  the  success  of 
the  invaders  ended  :  tlie  detachment  sent  against  jEtolia  was  cut  to 
pieces  by  a  nation  scarcely  less  ferocious  than  the  Gauls  themselves  ; 
and  the  main  body,  after  suffering  severely  from  cold  and  storms  in  the 
defiles  of  Mount  Parnas'sus,  was  almost  annihilated  by  the  enthusiast]  c  de- 
fenders of  the  national  temple.  The  miserable  remnant  of  the  invaders 
fell  back  upon  a  fresh  body  of  their  countrymen,  with  whom  they  passed 
over  into  Asia ;  and  after  inflicting  many  calamities  on  the  states  of 
Anatolia,  obtained  possession  of  the  province  which  received  from  them 
the  name  of  Galatia. 

Antig'onus  Gonatas,  the  son  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  deriving  his 
name  from  Goni  in  Thessaly,  where  he  had  been  educated,  obtained  the 
vacant  throne  of  Macedon,  after  a  contest  of  three  years  with  various 
competitors,  and  transmitted  it  to  his  posterity ;  but  he  did  not,  like  his 
predecessors,  possess  the  sovereignty  of  southern  Greece,  whose  inde- 
pendence had  been  secured  by  the  Achaean  league.  This  association 
had  been  originally  revived  by  the  towns  of  Pat'ra;,  Dy'me,  Trite,  and 
Phane  ;  but  it  did  not  become  formidable  imtil  it  was  joined  by  Sic^yon 
(b.  c.  2.'31),  after  the  noble  Aratushad  freed  that  city  from  tyrants. 

The  return  of  Pyr'rhus  from  Italy  was  followed  by  a  new  revolution 
in  Macedon  ;  the  mercenaries  revolted  to  the  Epirote  monarch,  and  An- 
tig'onus was  driven  from  the  throne.  He  retired  into  southern  Greece, 
whither  he  was  soon  followed  by  his  rival,  who  had  been  solicited  to 
place  Cleon'ymus  on  the  throne  of  Lacedae'mon.  Pyr'rhus  professed 
that  his  chief  object  in  entering  the  Peloponnesus  was  to  deliver  the 
cities  from  the  yoke  of  Antig'onus ;  but  his  actions  were  inconsistent 
with  his  declarations,  for  he  ravaged  the  lands  of  Laconia,  and  made  an 
attempt  to  surprise  Spar'ta.  Being  defeated  in  this  enterprise,  he  turn- 
ed his  arms  against  Ar'gos,  and  was  admitted  into  the  city  by  some  of 
his  secret  partisans.  But  the  Argives  opened  another  gate  to  Antig'o- 
nus, who  entered  with  a  chosen  body  of  troops.  A  fierce  struggle  en- 
sued, which  was  terminated  by  the  death  of  Pyr'rhus.  An  Argive  wo- 
rr  5,n,  whose  son  he  was  about  to  slay,  struck  him  with  a  tile  from  the 
roof  of  the  house ;  he  fell  from  his  horse,  and  was  trampled  to  death 
fn  the  press  (b.  c.  271).  After  a  short  contest  with  Alexander,  the  son 
of  Pyr'rhus,  Antig'onus  regamed  the  throne  of  Macedon,  and  retained 
it  to  his  death. 

The  Achaean  league  was  joined  by  Corinth,  Trcezene,  and  Epidau- 
rus,  when  Aratus,  by  a  bold  attempt,  had  driven  the  Macedonian  garri- 
sor  from  the  Corinthian  citadel.  It  was  finally  joined  by  Athens  (a.  c. 
229),  and  continually  grew  in  strength,  though  opposed  by  the  Macedo- 
nians and  ^Etolians.  So  rapidly  did  the  pov/er  of  the  confederacy  in- 
crease, that  the  king  of  Egypt  sought  its  alliance,  and  some  of  the  states 
north  of  the  Peloponnesus  solicited  to  be  admitted  as  members. 

On  the  death  of  Antig'onus  Gonatas  (b.  c.  243),  his  son  Demetrius 
n.  became  king  of  Macedon.  The  ten  years  of  his  reign  were  spent 
in  war  with  the  JStolians,  who  had  formed  a  confederacy  similar  to  that 
of  the  Achaeans.  After  his  death  (b.  c.  233),  Antig'onus  Doson,  cousin 
to  the  late  monarch,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  nominally  as  guardian  of 
the  infant  prince  Philip  II.,  just  as  a  revolution  if  *hie  Peloponnesus 


148  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

was  about  to  effect  A  great  and  important  change  in  the  political  aspect 
of  Greece. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Lycur'gus  were  only  nominally  observed  in 
Spar'ta :  the  plunder  of  foreign  countries  had  introduced  wealth  End 
luxury ;  a  law  sanctioning  the  alienation  of  landed  estates  had  effaced 
the  ancient  equality  of  property  ;  and  the  gradual  decrease  of  the  ruling 
caste  of  Spartan  families  had  rendered  the  oligarchy  as  weak  as  it  was 
odious.  A  bold  plan  of  reform,  including  a  fresh  division  of  landed 
property,  an  abolition  of  debts,  and  the  weakening  of  the  power  of  the 
Eph'ori",  was  brought  forward  by  King  A'gis  III.  (b.  c.  244) ;  it  was  at 
first  very  successful,  but  the  unsteadiness  of  Agis,  and  the  opposition 
of  the  other  king,  Leon'idas,  brought  about  a  counter-revolution  (b.  c. 
241).  A'gis  was  strangled  by  the  order  of  the  Eph'ori,  and  Iris  mother 
and  grandmother  shared  the  same  fate. 

Leon'idas  compelled  the  widow  of  A'gis  to  marry  his  youthful  son 
Cleom'enes,  not  foreseeing  that  she  was  likely  to  inspire  the  prince 
with  the  principles  of  her  former  husband.  Soon  after  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  Cleom'enes,  relying  on  the  reputation  he  had  acquired  by 
defeating  the  efforts  of  Aratus  to  force  Sparta  into  the  Achaean  league, 
renewed  the  reforms  of  A'gis  (b.  c.  227)  ;  and,  as  he  was  unscrupulous 
in  the  use  of  the  means  requisite  to  efi'ect  his  object,  be  speedily  over- 
threw the  Eph'ori,  and  opened  the  right  of  citizenship  to  all  the  l^a- 
cedcemonians.  He  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Achaeans  (b.  c. 
224),  compelled  Ar'gos  and  Corinth  to  secede  from  the  league,  defeated 
the  confederates  at  Dy'me,  and  reduced  Aratus  to  such  difficulties  that 
he  was  forced  to  solicit  assistance  from  the  king  of  Macedon.  Antig'- 
onus  II.  readily  embraced  so  favorable  an  opportunity  for  restoring  the 
influence  of  his  family  in  southern  Greece.  He  entered  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and,  after  some  minor  operations,  he  obtained  a  complete  vic- 
tory over  Cleom'enes  at  Sellasia,  on  the  borders  of  Laconia,  which 
placed  Spar'ta  at  his  mercy  (b.  c.  222).  Cleom'enes  fled  to  Egypt; 
the  Macedonians,  advancing  from  the  field  of  battle,  took  possession  of 
Lacedaemon  without  a  blow,  but  they  used  their  victory  moderately,  and 
its  ancient  constitution  was  restored.  Antig'onus  did  not  long  survive 
his  victory  ;  he  died  generally  lamented  by  the  Greeks  (b.  c.  221) 
and  was  succeeded  by  Philip  II.,  son  of  Demetrius. 

The  iEtolians  were  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  peace  that  followed 
the  battle  of  Sellasia.  No  sooner  had  they  received  intelligence  of  the 
death  of  Antig'onus,  than,  despising  the  youth  and  inexperience  of  his 
successor  Philip,  they  commenced  a  series  of  piratical  attacks  on  the 
Messenians  and  Macedonians,  which  speedily  rekindled  the  flames  of 
war.  Aratus  was  sent  to  expel  the  iEtolians  from  Messenia,  and  en- 
tered into  a  convention  with  their  leaders  for  the  purpose ;  after  which 
he  imprudently  dismissed  the  greater  part  of  his  army.  The  ^toliana 
took  advantage  of  his  weakness  to  attack  him  unexpectedly,  and  then, 
having  ravaged  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  they  returned 
home  laden  with  plundei 

Philip,  being  invited  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Achaean 
league,  went  to  Corinth,  where  a  general  assembly  of  the  states  waa 
held.  A  declaration  of  wai  against  the  iEtolians  was  voted  by  all  the 
southern  Greeks,  except  the  Spartans  and  Eleans,  who  were  both  ad« 


MACEDON  AiSD  GREECE.  1-45 

verse  to  tlie  league  ;  and  active  preparations  for  hostilities  were  made 
on  both  sides.  While  thcs^  affairs  engaged  attention  throughout 
Greece,  little  regard  was  paid  to  the  commercial  war  between  the  By- 
zantines and  Rhodians,  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  tolls  exacted  by 
the  former  from  all  vessels  entering  the  Euxine  sea  (b.  c.  222).  It 
terminated  in  favor  of  the  latter,  and  the  Byzantines  were  forced  to 
abolish  the  onerous  duties. 

Cleom'enes,  in  his  exile,  was  a  careful  observer  of  the  transactions 
in  Greece,  and'  perceiving  that  the  Lacedaemonians,  according  to  his 
original  policy,  were  preparing  to  join  the  iEtolians  against  the  Achae- 
ans,  he  believed  that  an  opportunity  was  afforded  for  recovering  his 
hereditary  throne.  The  young  king  of  Egypt,  dreading  his  talents  and 
his  temper,  was  unwilling  to  see  him  restored  to  power,  and  therefore 
not  only  refused  him  assistance,  but  even  detained  him  from  attempting 
the  enterprise  with  his  own  hired  servants.  But  Cleom'enes  was 
scarcely  less  formidable  in  Alexan'dria,  than  he  would  have  been  if 
restored  to  his  former  power  in  Spar'ta,  for  he  had  won  the  favor  of  the 
Grecian  mercenaries  in  the  Egyptian  service,  who  showed  a  strong  at- 
tachment to  his  person.  The  ministers  of  the  young  Ptolemy  caused 
him  to  be  arrested,  but  he  baffled  the  vigilance  of  his  guards,  and  fol- 
lowed by  his  friends  rushed  through  the  streets  of  Alexan'dria,  exhorting 
the  multitude  to  strike  for  freedom.  No  one  responded  to  his  call ;  the 
royal  forces  prepared  to  surround  him,  and  Cleom'enes,  dreading  to 
encounter  the  tortures  of  the  cruel  Egyptians,  committed  suicide 
Thus  perished  a  king,  who,  in  spite  of  many  grievous  faults,  was  the  lasf 
hope  of  his  country,  and  the  only  person  capable  of  restoring  the  su- 
premacy of  Spar'ta  and  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  war  between  Philip  and  the  yEtolians  was  conducted  with  great 
obstinacy  and  cruelty  on  both  sides ;  Philip's  progress  was  aided  by 
his  fleet,  which  soon  rose  into  importance  ;  but  it  was  also  greatly 
checked  by  the  intrigues  of  Apel'les  and  other  wretches  who  envied 
Aratus,  and  weakened  the  influence  of  his  prudent  counsels.  The  in- 
creasing power  of  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians,  who  were  already 
contending  for  the  empire  of  the  world  in  the  second  Punic  war,  at 
length  inclined  all  the  Greeks  to  peace,  for  they  felt  that  it  would  be 
soon  n.;cessary  to  defend  the  independence  of  Greece  either  against 
Rome  or  Carthage,  whichever  should  prove  victorious.  A  treaty  was 
accordingly  concluded  between  the  general  assembly  of  the  iEtolian 
states  at  Naupac'tus  and  the  representatives  of  the  Achtean  confederacy 
(r.  c.  217)  :  Philip  attended  in  person,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the 
success  of  the  negotiations. 

The  Macedonian  monarch  possessed  the  ambition,  but  not  the  milita- 
ry talents  of  Pyr'rhus.  I^ike  the  great  Epirote,  he  hoped  to  become 
the  conqueror  of  Italy,  and  entered  into  a  strict  alliance  with  Han'nibal, 
who  had  already  invaded  the  peninsula.  About  the  same  time,  to  get 
rid  of  the  remonstrances  of  Aratus,  who  frequently  warned  the  king  of 
the  dangers  that  would  result  from  his  indulgence  in  ambitious  projects, 
he  caused  the  old  general  to  be  poisoned :  a  crime  which  filled  all 
Greece  with  horror  and  indignation. 

The  Romans  resolved  to  find  Philip  so  much  employment  in  Greece 
vhat  he  should  not  have  leisure  to  attack  Italy.     They  prevailed  on  the 


150  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

.Elolians  to  violate  the  recent  treaty,  promising  .hem,  as  a  rewara,  tne 
possession  of  Acarnania  and  the  Ionian  islands.  To  this  confederacy 
the  republics  of  Sparta  and  Elis,  and  the  kings  of  Per'ganius  and  E'iis, 
acceded  (b.  c.  211).  Philip,  on  the  other  hand,  was  supported  by  the 
Acarnanians,  the  Boeotians,  and  the  Achaeans.  The  Romans  and  their 
ally  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  became  masters  of  the  sea ;  but  the 
former  were  too  much  engaged  by  the  presence  of  Han'nibal  in  Italy 
to  continue  tlieir  aid  to  the  iEtolians ;  and  At'talus  wns  recalled  home 
to  defend  his  own  kingdom  from  an  invasion  of  the  Bithynians.  Nearly 
at  the  same  time,  Philopce'men,  the  worthy  successor  of  Aratus,  as 
head  of  the  Achaean  league,  defeated  and  slew  wiih  his  own  hand 
Machan'idas,  the  usurper  of  Laceda^mon. 

The  iEtolians,  thus  deprived  of  all  their  allies,  made  overtures  of 
peace,  which  were  readily  accepted  (b.  c.  208).  The  Romans  made 
some  efforts  to  interrupt  the  treaty  ;  But  the  /Etolians  had  suffered  too 
severely  to  continue  the  war  any  longer.  Scarcely  had  peace  been 
restored,  when  Philip  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Priisias,  king  of 
Bith'ynia,  against  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus  ;  and  with  the  Syrian 
monarch  against  the  infant  ruler  of  Egypt.  As  if  these  enemies  were 
not  sufficient,  he  declared  war  against  the  Rhodians ;  but  was  soon 
punished  by  the  overthrow  and  ruin  of  the  Macedonian  fleet  at  Chios 
(b.  c.  202).  The  Athenians  were  next  added  to  the  number  of  his 
enemies  ;  and  this  once-powerful  people,  no  longer  able  to  protect  their 
fallen  fortunes,  supplicated  the  Romans  for  aid.  A  fleet  and  army  were 
sent  to  secure  this  illustrious  city,  and  it  reached  Athens  just  in  time 
to  save  it  from  a  sudden  attack  of  the  Macedonians. 

Having  delivered  Athens,  the  Romans  advanced  into  northern  Greece, 
where  they  compelled  the  Boeotians  to  join  in  the  league  against  Philip. 
The  legions  in  Epirus  at  the  same  time  marched  into  Macedon  itself, 
and,  though  they  gained  no  immediate  advantages,  they  facilitated  the 
passage  of  troops  for  a  future  and  more  decisive  invasion. 

In  the  second  campaign,  when  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  confided 
to  the  consul  Flamin'ius,  Philip's  fortunes  declined  so  rapidly,  that  his 
allies,  especially  the  Achaeans,  lost  all  courage,  and  accepted  terms  of 
peace.  Though  deserted,  the  Macedonian  monarch  did  not  resign  all 
hope  ;  he  assembled  an  army  in  Thessaly  nearly  equal  to  that  of  his 
enemies,  but  inferior  in  discipline  and  equipment,  with  which  he  took 
post  on  a  range  of  low  hills,  called  from  their  singular  shape  Cynos- 
ceph'alaj,  or  "  the  dogs'  heads."  In  the  early  part  of  the  decisive  bat- 
tle, the  Macedonians  at  first  had  the  advantage,  their  right  wing  having 
borne  down  the  opposing  divisions  ;  but  the  consul,  observing  that  the 
left  of  the  Macedonians  had  not  been  formed  into  order  of  battle, 
charged  them  with  his  cavalry  and  elephants,  and  scattered  them  in  a 
few  moments  ;  he  then  assailed  the  victorious  Macedonian  wing  in 
flank  and  rear.  The  phalanx,  admirable  for  attack,  was  an  inconvenient 
body  to  manoeuvre  ;  the  phalangites  attempted  to  face  about,  broke  their 
lines,  and  were  in  a  moment  a  disorderly  mass,  unable  to  fight  or  fly. 
The  route  was  complete  :  eight  thousand  Macedonians  fell ;  five  thou- 
sand remained  prisoners  ;  while  the  loss  of  the  Romans  did  not  exceed 
seven  hundred  men.  Without  an  army  and  without  resources,  Philip 
was  forced  to  beg  a  peace  (b.  c.  197) ;  he  purchased  it  by  the  sacrilice 


MACEDON  AND  GREECE.  151 

of  his  navy  and  the  resignation  of  his  supremacy  over  tlie  Grecian 
states. 

Tlie  Romans,  thus  successful,  went  through  the  farce  of  prochiiming 
the  liberties  of  Greece  at  the  Isthmian  games,  amid  the  wildest  exulta- 
tion of  the  spectators.  This  extraordinary  scene  can  not  be  viewed 
without  gratification,  even  by  those  who  have  learned  how  large  a  pro- 
portion of  history  is  occupied  by  fair  professions  unfulfilled,  and  hopea 
unwortjiily  disappointed.  The  spectators  were  assembled  from  all  the 
Grecian  states  and  colonies,  they  were  full  of  anxiety  and  busy  in 
conjecture  as  to  the  conduct  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  new  arbiters 
of  Greece,  when  the  trumpet  sounded,  and  proclamation  was  made  to 
this  effect :  "  The  Roman  senate  and  T.  Quinc'tius  the  proconsul, 
having  overcome  King  Philip  and  the  Macedonians,  leave  free,  ungar- 
risoned,  unburdened  with  tribute,  the  Corinthians,  Phocians,  Thessa* 
lians,  and  others,"  specifying  all  the  Greeks  who  had  been  subject  to 
Philip.  The  voice  of  the  crier  was  drowned  in  acclamations,  so  that 
many  failed  to  hear  the  purport  of  the  proclamation  ;  and  others  thought 
that  what  they  heard  must  be  spoken  in  a  dream,  so  far  did  it  exceed 
their  expectation.  The  crier  was  called  back,  and  the  same  words 
being  repeated  were  followed  by  loud  and  reiterated  shouts  of  ap- 
plause ;  after  which  the  various  shows  and  trials  of  skill  proceeded 
unregarded,  the  minds  of  the  spectators  being  too  full  to  heed  them. 
When  all  these  were  finished,  a  general  rush  was  made  toward  the 
Roman  commander ;  and  it  is  said  that,  had  he  not  been  a  man  in  the 
full  prime  and  vigor  of  youth,  his  life  might  have  been  endangered  by 
the  multitude  of  those  who  thronged  to  see  him,  to  address  him  as  a 
savior,  to  take  him  by  the  hand,  or  to  throw  garlands  upon  him.  "It 
was  glorious  that  a  state  should  exist  in  the  world,  which  had  will  to 
contend  for  Grecian  freedom,  and  power  and  fortune  to  achieve  it." 
Such  a  praise  may  have  been  partly  due  to  the  present  conduct  of  the 
Romans,  but  Flamin'ius  showed  his  insincerity  by  secretly  laboring  to 
weaken  the  Achaean  league  ;  which,  however,  was  strengthened,  after 
the  murder  of  the  tyrant  Nabis  (b.  c.  192),  by  the  accession  of  Sparta. 

Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  instigated  by  Han'nibal,  who  had  sought 
refuge  in  his  court  when  exiled  from  his  native  country,  declared  war 
against  the  Romans  (b.  c.  193) ;  but  instead  of  attacking  their  power  in 
Africa  or  Italy,  he  passed  over  into  Greece,  and  was  gladly  welcomed 
by  the  turbulent  TEtolians.  The  Acha^ans,  of  course,  joined  the  Ro- 
mans as  soon  as  their  ancient  enemies  had  declared  for  Antiochus ; 
and  Philip,  notwithstanding  his  recent  defeat,  lent  his  interest  to  the 
same  cause.  The  campaigns  of  Antiochus  were  mere  repetitions  of 
error  and  presumption ;  at  length  he  returned  to  Asia  (b.  c.  191),  leav- 
ing his  allies  exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  their  enemies.  The  JEto- 
lians  were  the  most  severely  treated ;  the  only  terms  of  peace  which 
the  Romans  would  consent  to  grant  reduced  them  to  poverty,  and 
deprived  them  of  independence  (b.  c.  189) ;  but  Antiochus  having  been 
defeated  utterly  by  the  Scipios  in  Asia,  they  had  no  alternative;  and 
were  forced  to  bend  their  stubborn  necks  to  the  heavy  yoke  imposed 
upon  them.  About  the  same  time  Sparta  was  caj)tured  by  the  Achajans, 
under  the  command  of  Philopoe'men,  and  the  constitution  of  Lycur'gua 
finally  abolished. 


152  ANCIEKT  HISTORY. 

The  Romans  affected  great  indignation  at  the  sufferings  of  the  Spar 
tans,  and  compelled  the  Achaeans  to  modify  the  terms  they  had  imposed 
on  the  conquered.     But  this  was  a  trifling  calamity  compared  with  tha^ 
which  the  league  sustained  by  the  loss  of  Philop(je'men,  the  last  great 
general  that  maintained  the  glory  of  the  Hellenic  race  (b.  c.  183). 

The  petty  war  between  the  Messenians  and  Achaeans  would  scarcely 
deserve  notice  but  for  its  having  proved  fatal  to  t.he  last  of  the  long  line 
of  Grecian  heroes  and  patriots.  Philopce'men  was  surprised  by  the 
enemy,  when  passing  with  a  small  party  of  cavalry  through  a  difficult 
defile.  It  was  thought  that  he  might  have  escaped  by  the  aid  of  some 
light-armed  Thracians  and  Cretans  in  his  band ;  but  he  would  not  quit 
the  horsemen,  whom  he  had  recently  selected  from  the  noblest  of  the 
Achaeans ;  and  while  he  was  bringing  up  the  rear,  and  bravely  cover- 
ing the  retreat,  his  horse  fell  with  him.  He  was  seventy  years  old, 
and  weakened  by  recent  sickness  ;  and  he  lay  stunned  and  motionless 
under  his  horse,  till  he  was  found  by  the  Messenians,  who  raised  him 
from  the  ground  with  as  much  respect  as  if  he  had  been  their  own 
commander,  and  carried  him  to  the  city,  sending  before  them  the  news 
that  the  war  was  finished,  for  Philopffi'men  was  taken.  The  first  im- 
pression of  those  who  heard,  was  that  the  messenger  was  mad ;  but 
when  others  coming  after  confirmed  the  statement,  men,  women,  and 
children,  freemen  and  slaves,  all  crowded  to  see.  So  great  was  the 
throng,  that  the  gates  could  scarcely  be  opened ;  and  as  the  greater 
part  could  not  see  the  prisoner,  there  was  a  general  cry  that  he  should 
be  brought  into  the  theatre  close  by.  The  magistrates  showed  him 
there  for  a  moment,  and  then  hastily  removed  him,  for  they  feared  the 
effects  which  might  be  produced  by  pity  and  reverence  for  so  great  a 
man,  and  gratitude  for  his  merits.  A  long  and  anxious  debate  took 
place,  which  was  protracted  throughout  the  entire  night.  Finally, 
murderous  counsels  prevailed,  and  a  cup  of  poison  was  sent  to  Philo- 
poe'men  in  his  dungeon.  He  submitted  to  his  fate  with  great  forti- 
tude, and  liis  only  solicitude  was  respecting  the  safety  of  his  compan- 
ions. A  little  before  he  expired  he  had  the  gratification  of  learning 
ihat  they  had  succeeded  in  making  their  escape.  His  fate  was  soon 
ivenged ;  Messene  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Achaean  general 
Lycos'tas,  and  all  who  had  a  share  in  the  murder  of  Philopoe'men 
were  put  to  death. 

Philip  had  in  the  meantime  borne  very  impatiently  the  overbearing 
conduct  of  the  Romans ;  but  the  exertions  of  his  son  Demetrius, 
whom  he  had  givtn  as  a  hostage  after  his  defeat  at  Cynos-ceph'alae, 
with  the  leading  men  at  Rome,  prevented  a  rupture.  On  this  account 
Demetrius  was  enthusiastically  received  by  the  Macedonians  on  his 
return  home — a  circumstance  of  which  his  elder  brother  Per'seus  took 
advantage,  to  accuse  the  young  prince  of  treason.  Philip  delivered 
this  promising  young  man  to  the  executioner ;  but  soon  after  his  death, 
discovering  his  innocence,  he  made  an  attempt  to  change  the  succes- 
sion, and  have  Antig'onus  acknowledged  as  his  heir ;  but,  before  this 
could  be  effected,  the  wretched  monarch  died  of  a  broken  heart 
(b.  c.  179).  Per'seus  ascended  the  throne  with  the  certainty  that  he 
was  secretly  hated  by  the  Romans  and  his  own  subjects.  One  of  his 
earliest  acts  was  to  put  Antig'onus  to  death,  and  thus  prevent  the  perils 


SYRIA.  153 

of  competition  at  home  when  hostilities  abroad  were  ineviiible  Pre- 
tences for  war  were  easily  found:  a  Roman  army  crossed  the  sea,  and 
passed  through  Epirus  and  Athamc4nia  into  Thessaly.  Per'seus  neg- 
lected many  opportunities  of  attacking  his  enemies  at  a  disadvantage ; 
and  when  he  asked  for  peace,  after/having  triumphed  in  slight  skir- 
mishes, he  found  that  the  Romans  were  more  haughty  after  defeat  than 
after  victory.  The  alliance  of  Gen'tius,  king  of  Illyria,  might  probably 
have  turned  the  scale  of  war  in  favor  of  the  Macedonian  monarch ;  but 
he  defrauded  his  ally  of  the  subsidy  he  had  promised  to  enable  him  to 
levy  an  army ;  and  the  Romans,  landing  in  Illyr'ia,  subdued  the  whole 
kingdom  within  thirty  days.  Soon  afterward  the  consul  Lucius  ^Emil- 
ius  Paulus  appeared  in  Macedon  ;  and  his  name  gave  confidence  to  the 
friends  of  Rome,  while  it  filled  the  partisans  of  Per'seus  with  confu- 
sion (b.  c.  168).  After  some  indecisive  skirmishes,  the  Macedonian 
monarch  was  forced  to  hazard  a  decisive  engagement  at  Pyd'na,  in 
which  he  was  irretrievably  ruined.  Twenty  thousand  Macedonians 
were  slain  ;  Per'seus  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  led  in  chains 
to  Rome  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  his  haughty  concfueror. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  had  taken  place  on  the  eve  of  the  battle. 
Such  appearances  were  then  superstitiously  believed  to  be  ominous  of 
ill  to  states  and  kingdoms.  C.  vSulpic'ius  Gal'luS;  a  Roman  officer, 
had  science  enough  to  know  their  nature  and  foretell  their  occurrence  : 
and  he,  lest  the  soldiers  should  be  disheartened  by  the  eclipse,  called 
them  together,  declared  that  it  would  happen,  and  explained  its  cause. 
This  changed  the  fear,  which  might  otherwise  have  arisen,  into  wonder 
at  the  knowledge  of  Gal'lus :  while  in  the  Macedonian  camp  the  ap 
pearance  was  apprehended  by  many  to  portend  the  extinction  of  the 
kingdom. 

By  the  victory  at  Pyd'na  the  fate  of  Macedon  and  Greece  was 
sealed :  the  Romans  permitted  both,  indeed,  for  a  time  to  enjoy  quali- 
fied independence  ;  but  they  exercised  over  them  a  galling  supremacy, 
which  rendered  their  freedom  an  empty  name.  Above  a  thousand  of 
the  most  eminent  Achsans  were  summoned  at  one  time  to  Rome,  and 
detained  there  seventeen  years  in  prison,  witho,ut  being  admitted  to  an 
audience.  Some  of  these,  on  their  return,  stimulated  their  countrymen 
to  insult  the  Roman  ambassadors  at  Corinth,  who  had  come  to  arrano-e 
some  disputes  be:ween  the  Achsans  and  the  Spartans  (b.  c.  148). 
This  of  course  led  to  a  war:  the  Achoeans  were  everywhere  defeated, 
and  at  length  Corinth  was  taken  by  Mum'mius,  the  Roman  consul 
(b.  c.  146),  who  razed  that  splendid  city  to  the  ground.  Thencefor- 
ward, Greece,  under  the  name  of  Achaia,  became  a  Roman  province, 
and  Macedon  had  been  reduced  to  the  same  condition  some  years  pre- 
viously. The  shadow  of  freedom,  however,  was  left  to  some  of  the 
cities,  but  especially  to  Athens,  which  became  the  university  of  the 
Roman  empire. 

Section  II. — History  of  Ike  Kingdom  of  Syria  under  the  ScUucidce. 

FROM  B.  C.  312    TO    B,  C.  64 

The  victory  of  Seleikus  over  the  satraps  of  Persia  and  Media, 
already  mentioned  (p.  143),  gave  that  monarch  possession  of  the  prin- 


154  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

cipal  part  of  uppbf  Asia.  In  less  than  four  years  hf  became  n/astei 
of  the  countries  between  the  Oxus,  the  Indus,  and  the  Euphrates 
(b.  c.  306) ;  and,  reviving  the  projects  of  Alexander,  he  invaded  India. 
More  fortunate  than  his  illustrious  master,  he  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Ganges,  where  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Sandracot'tus,  the  king 
of  the  rich  country  between  the  Sutlege  and  the  Ganges.  The  great 
number  of  elephants  which  Seleucus  obtained  by  this  alliance  enabled 
him  to  turn  the  scale  at  the  battle  of  Ip'sus  :  but  a  more  important 
advantage  was,  the  commercial  intercourse  established  between  his 
subjects  and  those  of  Sandracot'tus.  After  the  death  of  Antig'onus  at 
Ip'sus,  Seleucus,  having  obtained  the  greater  part  of  the  late  satrap's 
provinces,  made  Syria  the  seat  of  his  government — an  unfortunate 
choice,  since  it  exposed  his  kingdom  to  the  jealousy  of  Egypt,  in- 
volved it  in  the  troubled  politics  of  the  western  world,  and  led  the 
rulers  to  neglect  the  rich  countries  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates. 
During  the  eighteen  years  of  peace  that  followed  the  death  (_.f  Antig'- 
onus, Seleucus  founded  or  emliellished  several  important  cities,  espe- 
cially Antfoch  in  Syria,  which  he  made  the  capital  of  his  dominions, 
and  two  Seleucias ;  one  on  the  Tigris,  the  other  on  the  Oron'tes. 
Anxiety  to  add  Macedon  to  his  dominions  induced  Seleucus  to  invade 
Europe ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his  career  he  was  murdered  by  Ptolemy 
Ceraunus  (b.  c.281).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Anliochus,  sur- 
named  Soter  [tlte  savior),  who  had  for  some  time  governed  the  provin- 
ces of  upper  Asia. 

Antiochus  pursued  his  father's  plans  of  conquest  in  Asia  Minor :  but 
he  ceded  his  claims  over  Macedon  to  Antig'onus  Gonnatus,  and  gave 
his  step-daughter  in  marriage  to  that  monarch.  The  northern  states  in 
Asia  Minor  that  had  asserted  their  independence  rapidly  attained  matu- 
rity ;  Antiochus  was  defeated  by  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bith'ynia,  who 
had  obtained  the  support  of  the  Gallic  hordes  after  their  defeat  in 
Greece  (b.  c.  275),  and  he  was  similarly  unsuccessful  in  a  war  with 
the  king  of  Per'gamus  (b.  c.  263),  whose  complete  defeat  of  the  Syri- 
ans gave  security  to  all  the  new  states.  Nor  was  Soter  more  fortunate 
in  a  war  he  undertook  against  Egypt :  Magas,  the  brother  of  the 
Egyptian  Ptolemy,  having  married  into  the  Syrian  royal  family,  hoped 
that  by  this  alliance  he  would  be  enabled  to  establish  a  new  kingdom 
in  Gyrene.  Antiochus  united  with  the  usurper,  and  both  marched 
against  Ptolemy.  The  Syrians  were  defeated  in  every  engagement ; 
their  coasts  were  laid  waste  by  the  Egyptian  fleet ;  and  Magas  was 
speedily  hurled  from  his  throne.  On  his  return,  Antiochus  marched 
against  the  Gauls,  who  had  advanced  toward  Eph'esus  (b.  c.  262),  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  that  city  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Antiochus  II.  avenged  his  father's  death  on  the  Gauls,  and  received, 
from  the  excessive  adulation  of  his  subjects,  the  surname  Theos  [god). 
in  his  reign,  the  provinces  of  upper  Asia  began  to  slip  from  the  grasp 
of  the  Seleucidae,  owing  to  the  progress  of  the  Parthian  tribes,  the 
exactions  of  the  provincial  governors,  and  the  unwise  efforts  of  the 
monarch  lo  force  the  Grecian  customs  and  religion  on  his  subjects.  In 
order  to  encounter  his  eastern  enemies  with  effect,  Theos  deemed  it 
necessary  to  tranquillize  the  west,  and  he  accordingly  made  peace 
with  the  king  of  Egypt.     In  pursuance  of  the  conditions  of  this  treaty^ 


SYRIA.  155 

Antiochus  married  Beren'co,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy,  divorcing  his  for- 
mer wife  Laodice,  and  excluding  her  children  fiom  the  succession. 
On  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  the  divorced  queen  was  restored  to  her  sta- 
tion ;  but  she  could  not  forget  the  insult  she  had  received,  nor  conquer 
her  dread  of  being  sacrificed  to  some  future  arrangement.  Influenced 
by  these  motives,  she  poisoned  her  husband  (b.  c.  247),  and  procured 
tlie  nmrder  of  Berenice  and  her  infant  son. 

Seleucus,  surnamed  Callinicus  [illustrious  conqueror),  succeeded  to 
the  throne  by  his  mother's  crime,  and  was  immediately  engaged  in  war 
with  Ptolemy  Ever'getes,who  was  eager  to  avenge  his  sister's  murder. 
Crossing  the  Syrian  deserts  with  a  numerous  army,  Ptolemy  overran 
rather  than  conquered  Palestine,  Babylonia,  Persia,  and  the  wealthy 
provinces  of  upper  Asia.  He  returned,  bringing  with  him  enormous 
spoils,  among  which  were  the  Egyptian  idols  which  Camby'ses  had 
takea  from  Mem'phis  and  Thebes.  On  his  way  back  he  encountered 
Seleucus,  whom  he  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  and  forced  to  take 
refuge  in  Antioch.  He  then  returned  to  Egypt,  having  gained  immense 
treasure,  but  no  additional  territory,  in  his  expedition.  Eiimenes,  king 
of  Per'gamus,  took  advantage  of  the  Egyptian  war  to  enlarge  his 
dominions  at  the  expense  of  the  Syrian  monarch;  and  Hierax,  the 
brother  of  Seleucus,  aided  by  a  body  of  Gauls,  attempted  to  usurp  the 
throne.  The  rebellion  was  at  first  successful ;  but  the  ravages  of  the 
Gauls  provoked  such  general  indignation,  that  Seleucus  found  all  his 
subjects  rising  in  one  body  to  support  him  ;  and,  thus  strengthened,  he 
assailed  the  army  of  the  rebels  and  invaders  in  Babylonia.  The  battle 
was  fierce ;  but  it  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Gauls,  who  were 
almost  aimihilated  in  the  pursuit.  Hierax  fled  to  the  Egyptian  court, 
but  .was  thrown  into  prison  by  Ptolemy,  where  he  languished  thirteen 
years,  and  only  escaped  to  perish  by  the  hands  of  robbers  in  the  Syrian 
desert.  Callinicus  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Parthians  (b.  c. 
237),  but  was  defeated  by  their  king  Arsaces  ;  and  the  Parthians  date 
the  origin  of  their  monarchy  from  this  battle.  In  a  second  campaign, 
Seleucus  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  (b.  c.  236),  and  was  detain 
ed  a  prisoner  by  the  Parthians  to  the  day  of  his  death  (b.  c.  227). 

Seleucus  HI.,  surnamed  Ceraunus  [the  thunderboli),  succeeded  his 
father  ;  but,  after  a  brief  reign,  was  removed  by  poison  (b.  c.  224). 
The  hopes  of  his  murderers,  however,  were  frustrated  by  the  vigor  of 
his  cousin  Acha;'us,  who  secured  the  inheritance  for  Antiochus,  the 
younger  brother  of  the  deceased  monarch,  who  had  been  satrap  of 
Bab'yion. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  Antiochus  HI.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
was  brought  into  great  danger  by  the  intrigues  of  his  prime  minister 
Hermeias,  a  native  of  Caria.  Deceived  by  the  artifices  of  this  crafty 
vizier,  Antiochus  quarrelled  with  Achae'us,  to  whom  he  was  mainly  in- 
debted for  his  crown,  and  set  Molon  and  Alexander,  the  brothers  of 
Hermeias,  over  the  important  provinces  of  Media  and  Persia.  The 
new  satraps  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  and  defeated  the  royal  generals 
Bent  against  them.  At  length  Antiochus  took  the  field  in  person,  con- 
trary to  the  wishes  and  remonstrances  of  his  minister.  When  the 
armies  were  about  to  engage,  the  rebel  forces,  by  an  almost  intuitive 
movement,  tluew  down  their  arms,  and  submitted  thenKelves  to  their 


156  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

youthful  sovereign.     Molon  and  Alexander  escaped  a  public  execution 
by  suicide,  and   Hermeias  expiated   his   complicated  treasons  on  the 
scaffold  (b.  c.  220).     Whilst   Antiochus  was  thus   engaged  in  the  re- 
mote east,  Achae'us,  whom  he  had  forced  into  reoellion,  had  strengthen- 
ed himself  in  Asia  Minor  ;  and  the  Egyptian  monarch  Ptolemy  Phi 
lop'ater  was   becoming  formidable  on  the  southern  frontiers  of  Syria 
Antiochus  obtained    possession   of   Ccele-Syria   by  the    treachery   of 
Theodotus,  its  governor  ;  but  he  was   soon  after  defeated  by  Ptolemyj 
at  the  battle  of  Raphia  near  Gaza  (b.  c.  217),  and  forced  to  purchase 
peace  by  the   sacrifice  of  the  newly-acquired  province.     This  defea 
was  in  some  degree  compensated,  the  following  year,  by  the  capture  of 
Achae'us,  whose  ravages  to  support  his  troops  having  provoked  the  re 
sentment  of  the  kings  of  lesser  Asia,  he  was  besieged  in  the  citade 
of  Sar'dis   by  the  joint  forces  of  Antiochus  and  At'talus,  king  of  Per' 
gamus,  treacherously  betrayed,  and  ungratefully  put  to  death. 

Freed  from  the  dangers  of  this  war,  Antiochus  turned  his  attention 
to  the  affairs  of  upper  Asia,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the  Par- 
thians  and  Bactrians  (b.  c.  214).  He  was,  however,  forced  to  recog- 
nise the  independence  of  both  nations.  To  secure  his  dominions,  he 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Demetrius,  the  son  of  the  Bactrian 
monarch,  and  joined  that  prince  in  an  important  expedition  against 
northern  India  (b.  c.  206).  In  return,  he  made  some  efforts  to  revive 
the  commercial  system  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  paid  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  trade  of  the  Persian  gulf.  On  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Philop'- 
ater  (b.  c.  204),  and  the  accession  of  his  infant  son,  Antiochus  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  to  wrest  Egypt  from  the 
family  of  the  Ptolemies.  He  conquered  C(£le-Syria  ai^d  Palestine  ; 
but  v/as  prevented  from  pursuing  his  success  by  the  interference  of 
At'talus,  the  Rhodians,  and  the  Romans.  Checked  in  this  direction,  he 
revived  the  claims  of  his  family  on  the  northern  states  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  While  his  generals  besieged  Smyr'na  and  Lamp'sacus,  he  con- 
quered the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and  prepared  to  invade  Greece  (b.  c. 
196).  The  Romans  again  interfered;  but  the  Syrian  monarch,  insti- 
gated by  Hannibal,  who  had  sought  refuge  at  his  court,  treated  their 
remonstrances  with  disdain.  War  immediately  followed.  Antiochus 
lost  the  fairest  opportunities  of  success  by  neglecting  the  advice  of 
Hannibal :  driven  from  Europe  into  Asia,  he  was  forced  to  act  solely 
on  the  defensive,  until  his  total  defeat  at  Magnesia,  near  Mount  Sip'y- 
lus,  laid  him  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  his  enemies.  The  Romans  depriv- 
ed him  of  all  his  dominions  in  Asia  Minor,  the  greater  part  of  which 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Per'gamus.  The  unfortunate  monarch 
did  not  long  survive  his  defeat :  he  was  murdered  by  his  servants  (b.  c. 
187)  ;  but  the  cause  and  manner  of  the  crime  are  uncertain. 

Seleucus  IV.,  surnamed  Philop'ater  (a  lover  of  his  father),  succeeded 
to  a  throne  fast  falling  into  decay.  His  reign  lasted  eleven  years,  but  was 
not  distinguished  by  any  remarkable  event.  Anxious  to  have  the  aid 
of  his  brother  Antiochus,  who  had  been  given  as  an  hostage  to  the 
Romans,  Seleucus  sent  his  son  Demetrius  to  Rome  in  exchange.  Be- 
fore Antiochus  could  reach  home,  Heliodorus  poisoned  Seleucus,  and 
usurped  the  crown  (b.  c.  176).     This  is  represenied  by  many  Jewi.sh 


SYRIA.  1 57 

writers  as  a  pvovidendal  punishment  of  the  king,  who  had  employed  that 
very  minister  to  plunder  the  sacred  treasury  of  Jerusalem. 

Antiochus  IV.  soon  expelled  the  usurper,  and  assumed  the  surname 
of  Epiphanes  [illustrious)  which  his  subsequent  conduct  induced  his 
contemporaries  to  change  into  that  of  Epimanes  (madman).  He  sought 
to  combine  the  freedom  of  Roman  manners  with  the  ostentatious  luxury 
of  the  Asiatics,  and  thereby  provoked  universal  hatred.  His  reign 
cor.jmenced  with  a  war  against  Egypt,  in  consequence  of  the  claim  made 
by  the  Ptolemies  to  Ccele-Syria  and  Palestine.  Antiochus  was  very 
successful :  in  two  campaigns  he  penetrated  to  the  walls  of  Alexandria, 
and  gained  possession  of  the  person  of  Ptolemy  Philom'eter,  the  right 
ful  heir  of  the  Egyptian  throne,  who  had  been  driven  from  Alexandria 
by  his  brother  Phys^con.  With  this  prince  the  Syrian  monarch  con- 
cluded a  most  advantageous  peace  ;  but  scarcely  had  he  returned  home, 
when  Philom'eter  entered  into  an  accommodation  with  his  brother,  and 
Doth  combined  to  resist  the  power  of  Syria.  Justly  enraged  at  this 
treachery,  Antiochus  returned  to  Egypt ;  but  his  further  progress  was 
stopped  by  the  interference  of  the  Romans,  at  whose  imperious  command 
he  found  himself  compelled  to  resign  all  his  conquests  (b.  c.  169). 

The  ambition  of  Antiochus  was  next  directed  against  his  own  sub- 
jects :  he  resolved  to  establish  uniformity  of  worship  throughout  his 
dominions,  and  to  Hellenize  all  his  subjects.  His  intolerance  and  rapa- 
city engendered  a  determined  spirit  of  resistance  (b.  c.  168).  The 
Jews,  headed  by  the  gallant  Mac'cabees,  commenced  a  fierce  struggle, 
which,  after  much  suffering,  ended  in  the  restoration  of  their  former  in- 
dependence ;  and  the  Persians,  equally  attached  to  their  ancient  faith, 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Antiochus  hasted  to  suppress  the  insur- 
rection in  upper  Asia;  but  being  severely  defeated  (b.  c.  165),  he  died 
of  vexation  on  his  road  to  Babylon. 

Eiipator,  the  young  son  of  the  deceased  monarch,  was  placed  on  the 
throne  by  the  Syrians  ;  but  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philop'aov^T, 
having  escaped  from  Rome,  no  sooner  appeared  in  Asia  than  he  was 
joined  by  such  numerous  partisans,  that  he  easily  dethroned  his  rival 
(b.  c.  162).  With  the  usual  barbarity  of  Asiatic  sovereigns,  he  put  the 
young  prince  to  death,  and  found  means  to  purchase  the  pardon  of  his 
crimes  from  the  Roman  senate.  After  an  inglorious  reign,  he  was  slain 
in  battle  by  Alexander  Balas  (b.  c.  150),  an  impostor  who  personated 
the  unfortunate  Eupator,  and  was  supported  in  his  fraud  by  the  Mac'- 
cabees md-  the  Romans.  Balas  was  in  his  turn  defeated  by  Demetrius 
Nicator,  the  son  of  the  late  monarch  (b.  c.  145),  and  forced  to  seek 
refuge  in  Arabia,  where  he  was  murdered  by  his  treacherous  host. 

Nicator,  having  lost  the  affections  of  his  subjects,  was  driven  from 
Antioch  by  Try'phon,  who  placed  the  crown  on  the  head  of  young  An- 
tiochus, the  son  of  Balas ;  but  in  a  short  time  murdered  that  prince, 
and  proclaimed  himself  king.  Demetrius  was  withheld  from  marching 
against  the  usurper  by  the  hope  of  acquiring  a  better  kingdom  in  up- 
per Asia,  whither  he  was  invited  by  the  descendants  of  the  Greek  ana 
Macedonian  colonists,  to  defend  them  from  the  power  of  the  Parthians 
(b.  c.  140).  He  was  at  first  successful,  but  was  finally  captured  by 
his  enemies,  who  detained  him  a  prisoner  for  ten  years.  In  the  mean- 
time his  brother  Antiochus  Sidetes,  having  overthrown  Try'phon,  seized 


158  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  crown  of  Syria.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  good  and  wise  sover* 
eign  ;  but  unfortunately  he  was  induced,  by  the  provincials  of  uppel 
Asia,  to  wage  war  against  the  Parihians,  and  was  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  his  own  allies  (b.  c.  130).  Demetrius,  about  the  same  time, 
escaped  from  prison,  and  was  restored  to  the  throne.  But  after  a  brief 
reign  he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Zebinus  (b.  c.  126),  a  pretended 
son  of  the  impostor  Balas. 

Seleucus,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  was  waging  a  successful  war 
against  Zebmas,  when  he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  his  own 
mother  Cleopatra,  who  wished  to  secure  the  crown  for  her  favorite 
child  Antiochus  Gry'phus.  She  also  prevailed  on  her  relative,  the 
king  of  Egypt,  to  declare  war  against  the  usurper ;  and  Zebinas  was 
soon  defeated  and  slain.  Gry'phus  no  sooner  found  himself  secure  on 
the  throne  than  he  put  his  mother  to  death  for  the  murder  of  Seleucus 
(b.  c.  122) ;  and  it  must  be  added,  that  this  measure  was  necess.iry  to 
secure  his  own  life.  After  some  years,  Cyzicenus,  the  half-brother  of 
Gry'phus,  attempted  to  usurp  the  throne  ;  and  during  the  civil  war  that 
ensued,  many  cities  and  provinces  separated  from  the  Syrian  kingdom. 
Gry'phus  was  assassinated  (b.  c.  97).  His  five  sons  and  the  son  of 
Cyzicenus  engaged  in  a  dreary  series  of  civil  wars  ;  until  the  Syrians, 
weary  of  enduring  the  calamities  and  bloodshed  of  their  protracted  dis- 
sensions, expelled  the  entire  family,  and  gave  the  crown  to  Tigranes, 
king  of  Armenia  (b.  c.  83).  Tigranes,  after  a  long  and  not  inglorious 
reign,  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Romans,  which  ended  in  his 
complete  overthrow  ;  and  he  was  forced  to  resign  Syria  to  the  conquer- 
ors (b.  c.  64.)  Thus  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae  was  made  a  Roman 
province,  and  the  family  soon  after  became  extinct  in  the  person  of  Se 
leucus  Cybrosac'tes  (b.  c.  57).  He  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Egypt 
by  his  wife,  the  princess  Berenice,  and  afterward  murdered  by  her 
orders. 

SecT'On  in. — History  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies. 

FROM    B.   C.  301    TO    B.   C.  30. 

Ptol'emy,  the  son  of  Lagus,  was  the  wisest  state  sman  among  the  suc- 
cessors Q-  Alexander.  No  sooner  had  the  battle  of  Ip'sus  put  him  in 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Egypt,  than  he  begin  to  provide  for  the 
happiness  of  his  new  subjects  by  a  regeneration  of  their  entire  social 
system.  Unlike  the  Seleucidae,  he  made  no  attempt  to  Hellenize  the 
Eg)-piians  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  revived,  as  much  ss  altered  circum- 
stances would  permit,  their  ancient  religious  and  political  constitution ; 
the  priestly  caste  was  restored  to  a  portion  of  its  ancient  privileges ; 
the  division  of  the  country  into  nomes  was  renewed  ;  Memphis,  though 
not  the  usual  residence  of  the  nionarchs,  was  constituted  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  and  its  temple  of  Phtha  declared  the  national  sanctuary, 
where  alone  the  kings  could  receive  the  crown.  But  not  less  wise 
was  the  generous  patronage  accorded  to  literature  and  science :  the 
Museum  was  founded  in  Alexandria  as  a  kind  of  university  for  students, 
and  a  place  of  assembly  for  the  learned ;  the  first  great  national  library 
was  established  in  another  part  of  the  city ;  and  the  philosophers  and 


EGYPT.  ^^* 


men  of  letters  were  invited  to  seek  shelter  from  the  storms  which 
shook  every  other  part  of  the  world  in  the  tranquil  land  of  Egypt.  Im- 
pressed by  the  example  of  his  illustrious  master,  Ptol^emy  paid  great 
attention  to  trade  and  navigation.  Colonists  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe  were  invited  to  settle  at  Alexandria,  and  the  Jews  flocked  thither 
in  great  nvnnbers,  to  escape  the  persecution  of  their  Syrian  masters. 
So  many  of  that  singular  people  became  subjects  of  the  Ptol'emies, 
that  the'  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  from  Hebrew  into 
Greek  was  made  for  their  use,  and  a  Jewish  temple  erected  in  Egypt 
similar  to  that  of  Jerusalem.  The  double  harbors  of  Alexandria,  on 
the  sea,  and  on  the  Maraeot'ic  lake,  were  constructed  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  celebrated  Pharus,  or  lighthouse,  erected  at  the  entrance  of  the 
haven. 

The  city  of  Alexandria,  which  had  been  begun  before  the  death  of 
Alexander,  owed  most  of  its  splendor  to  Ptol'emy.  But  among  all  the 
public  buildings  he  planned  or  erected,  there  is  none  better  deserves 
our  attention  than  the  Museum,  or  College  of  Philosophy.  Its  chief 
room  was  a  great  hall,  which  was  used  as  a  lecture-room  and  common 
dining-room ;  it  had  a  covered  walk  or  portico  all  round  the  outside, 
and  there  was  a  raised  seat  or  bench  on  which  the  philosophers  some- 
times sat  in  the  open  air.  The  professors  and  teachers  of  the  college 
were  supported  by  a  public  income.  Ptol'emy's  love  of  art,  his  anxiety 
to  reward  merit,  and  his  agreeable  manners,  brought  to  his  court  so 
many  persons  distinguished  in  science,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts,  that 
the  Museum  of  Alexandria  became  the  centre  of  civilization  for  the 
xknown  world.  The  arts  and  letters  thus  introduced,  did  not  bear  their 
richest  fruit  in  the  reign  of  the  founder :  they  flourished  most  in  the 
age  of  his  son ;  but  this  does  not  detract  from  the  merit  of  the  firsi 
Ptol'emy,  who  gave  the  institutions  he  planted  such  permanence,  tha. 
they  struck  deep  root  in  the  soil  and  continued  to  flourish  under  all  his 
successors,  unchoked  by  the  vices  and  follies  which  unfortunately  grew 
up  around  them. 

In  return  for  the  literature  which  Greece  then  gave  to  Egypt,  she 
gained  the  knowledge  of  papy'rus.  Before  that  time  books  had  been 
written  on  Unen,  wax,  or  the  bark  of  trees  :  and  public  records  on 
stone,  brass,  or  lead  :  but  the  knowledge  of  papy'rus  was  felt  by  all 
men  of  letters  like  the  invention  of  printing  in  modern  Europe  ;  books 
were  then  known  by  many  for  the  first  time,  and  very  little  else  was 
afterward  used  in  Greece  and  Rome  ;  for  when  parchment  was  invent- 
ed about  t.-o  centuries  later,  it  was  found  too  costly  to  be  generally  used 
so  long  as  papy^rus  could  be  obtained.  The  papy'rus  reed  is  only 
found  in  Egypt  and  a  small  district  in  Sicily.  Successful  attempts 
have  been  made  to  manufacture  it  in  modem  times,  but  the  procesi,s  is 
too  tedious  and  uncertain  to  be  remunerative,  and  the  papy'rus  is  only 
prepared  as  a  matter  of  curiosity. 

The  external  security  of  Egypt  wap  strengthened  by  the  conquest  of 
the  Syrian  frontiers,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Cyrene,  a  considerable 
j[r»rt  of  Ethiopia,  and  the  island  of  ( .yprus.  Hence,  during  the  ad- 
minifctration  of  Ptol'emy  I.,  Egypt  was  free  from  the  fear  of  foreign  in- 
vasion, and  ils  inhabitants,  for  the  first  time  during  several  centuries, 
wero  free  to  develop  the  great  internal  resources  of  the  country.     Few 


160  ANCIENT    PIISTORY. 

sovereigns  were  more  deservedly  lamented  than  the  son  of  Lagiis  (b.  c. 
284)  ;  his  death  spread  universal  sorrow  among  his  subjects,  who  at 
once  lamented  him  as  a  father,  and  worshipped  him  as  a  god. 

The  reign  of  Ptol'emy  II.,  surnamed  Philadel'phus  (a  lover  of  his 
brethren),  was  disturbed  only  by  the  rebellion  of  Magas,  which  was 
supported  by  Antiochus  II.,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
section.  Under  the  peaceful  administration  of  Philadel'phus,  Egyptian 
commerce  made  the  most  rapid  strides  ;  ports  for  the  Indian  and  Ara- 
bian trade  were  constructed  on  the  Red  sea,  at  Arsinoe  (Suez),  My'os 
Hor'mus  (Cosseir),  and  Berenice.  From  the  two  latter  stations  cara- 
van roads  were  made  to  the  Upper  Nile,  and  the  lower  river  was  united 
to  the  Red  sea  by  a  canal,  which  was  further  continued  to  the  lesser 
harbor  of  Alexandria,  on  the  Marseotic  lake.  The  Ethiopian  trade  was 
revived  with  great  spirit ;  and  remote  countries  of  central  and  southern 
Africa  were  opened  to  the  enterprise  of  the  Alexandrian  merchants. 
Unfortunately,  the  luxury  of  the  court  increased  in  the  same  proportion 
as  the  wealth  of  the  country.  Philadel'phus  fell  into  all  the  effeminate 
dissipation  of  the  Asiatic  sovereigns,  and  adopted  their  pernicious 
habits  of  intermarriages  between  near  relations.  He  set  the  example 
by  repudiating  his  first  wife,  and  marrying  his  own  sister  Arsinoe,  who 
exercised  the  greatest  influence  over  her  husband.  She  brought  hirfi 
no  children,  but  she  adopted  the  offspring  of  her  predecessor. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Ptol'emy  PhiladeFphus  that  Pyr'rhus  was 
driven  out  of  Italy  by  the  Romans  (b.  c.  274) ;  and  this  event  mducea 
the  Egyptian  king  to  send  an  ambassador  to  the  senate,  to  wish  them 
joy  of  their  success,  and  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  republic. 
The  Romans  received  the  envoy  with  great  joy,  and  in  return  sent  four 
ambassadors  to  Egypt  to  seal  the  treaty.  Ptol'emy  showed  the  Roman 
deputies  every  kindness,  and  explained  to  them  those  processes  of 
Greek  art  with  which  they  were  acquainted.  Subsequently  two  of  the 
ambassadors,  Quin'tus  Ogul'nius  and  Fabius  Pic'tor,  having  been  elected 
consuls,  introduced  a  silver  coinage  at  Rome,  the  advantages  of  whicn 
they  had  been  taught  in  Egypt. 

Philadel'phus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ptol'emy  III.,  surnamed 
Ever''getes  (^/ifi  benefactor)  (b.  c.  24G).  Unlike  his  father,  he  Avas  a 
warlike,  enterprising  prince,  and  his  conquests  extended  into  the  re- 
mote regions  of  the  east  and  south.  His  war  with  Seleucus  II.,  in 
which  the  Egyptian  army  penetrated  as  far  as  Bactria,  has  been  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  section  ;  but  the  result  of  the  Asiatic  cam- 
paigns was  plunder,  not  any  permanent  acquisition  of  territory ;  very 
different  was  the  result  of  the  southern  wars,  by  which  a  great  part  of 
Abyssinian  and  the  Arabian  peninsula  was  added  to  the  Egyptian  do- 
minions, and  new  roads  for  trade  opened  through  these  remote  coun- 
tries. 

With  the  death  of  Ever'getes  (b.  c.  221),  ended  the  glory  of  th« 
Ptol'emies.  His  son  Ptol'emy,  surnamed  Philop'ater  (a  lover  of  hit 
father),  was  a  weak,  debauched  prince,  who  was,  during  his  whole  liin 
under  the  tutelage  of  unworthy  favorites.  At  the  instigation  of  his  iirsi 
minister,  Sosib'ius,  he  put  to  death  his  brother  Magas,  and  Clenw'unes, 
the  exiled  king  of  Spar'ta.  Antiochus  the  Great,  who  theii  ruled  in 
Syria,  took  advantage  of  Philop'ater's  incapacity  to  wage  war  against 


EGYPT.  161 

Ef<y]it ;  but  was  defeated  at  Raphia,  as  already  mentioned  in  ttie  pre- 
ceding section.  After  his  victory,  Ptol'emy  visited  Jerusalem,  and 
made  an  attempt  to  enter  the  sanctuary  of  the  temple  ;  but  being  pre- 
sented by  the  priests,  he  was  so  indignant,  that  on  his  return  to  Egypt 
he  prepared  to  exterminate  all  the  Jews  that  had  settled  in  the  king- 
dom. Tradition  says  that  his  cruel  project  was  miraculously  frustrated, 
and  that  the  Jews  were  again  restored  to  favor.  Soon  afterward  the 
king  murdtred  his  wife  and  sister,  and  transferred  his  aftections  to 
A.gathoclea,  whose  brother,  the  infamous  Agath'ocles, succeeded  to  the 
power  of  Sosib'ius.  At  length  his  continued  dissipation  broke  down 
his  constitution,  and  he  died  of  premature  infirmity,  though  in  the  very 
prime  of  life  (b.  c.  204).  He  left  behind  him  only  one  son,  a  child 
about  five  years  old. 

The  guardians  of  PtoFemy  V.,  surnamed  Epiph'anes  {illustrious), 
proving  unworthy  of  their  trust,  the  regency  was  transferred  to  the  Ro- 
man senate,  a  circumstance  which  saved  Egypt  from  being  involved  in 
he  Macedonian  or  Syrian  war.  Epiph'anes  was  a  weak,  debauched 
prince,  and  before  he  attained  his  thirtieth  year,  he  died,  the  victim  of 
dissipation  or  poison  (b.  c.  181).  He  left  behind  him  two  sons,  Ptol'- 
emy, surnamed  Philom'eter  (a  lojjcr  of  his  mother),  and  Phys'con,  both 
of  immature  age. 

The  claims  of  the  Egyptians  on  Coele-Syria  led  to  a  war  between 
the  regents  and  the  king  of  Syria,  in  the  course  of  which  Philom'eter 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Antiochus  Epiph'anes, as  has  been  related  in  the 
preceding  section.  After  the  retreat  of  the  Syrians,  Philom'eter,  being 
a  second  time  expelled  by  Phys'con,  appealed  to  the  Romans,  who  di- 
vided the  Egyptian  dominions  between  the  two  brothers.  He  sup- 
ported the  pretender  Balas  against  Demetrius,  and  mainly  contributed 
to  the  placing  of  that  imposter  on  the  Syrian  throne  ;  but  being  un- 
gratefully treated,  he  led  an  army  against  Balas,  and  defeated  him 
(b.  c.  145).  But  the  victory  was  fatal  to  Philom'eter;  he  died  of  the 
wounds  that  he  had  received  in  the  engagement. 

Phys'con,  by  marrying  Cleopatra,  who,  according  to  the  infamous 
practice  of  the  Ptol'emies,  was  Philom'eter's  wife  and  sister,  succeeded 
to  the  Egyptian  throne.  On  the  very  day  of  his  marriage  he  murdered 
his  infant  nephew  ;  and  his  conduct  toward  every  class  of  his  subjects 
was  in  accordance  with  this  atrocious  crime.  At  length  he  was  com- 
pelled by  the  Alexandrians  to  abandon  his  kingdom,  and  the  crown 
was  given  to  his  sister  Cleopatra,  whom  he  had  previously  divorced 
in  order  tv  marry  her  daughter,  who  had  the  same  name.  He  was 
subsequently  restored  by  the  aid  of  a  mercenary  army,  and  retained  the 
sceptre  to  the  day  of  his  death  (b  c.  116).  He  left  behind  him  two 
sons  by  his  niece  Cleopatra,  Ptolemy,  surnamed  Lathyrus,  from  the 
resemblance  of  a  wart  on  his  face  to  a  small  pea ;  and  Ptolemy,  sur- 
named Alexander. 

Cleopptra  endeavored  to  secure  the  crown  for  her  younger  son,  but 
was  compelled  by  the  Alexandrians  to  allow  Lathyrus  to  ascend  the 
throne.  She  however  compelled  him  to  exchange  Egypt  for  Cy'prus 
with  Alexander.  The  new  king,  unable  to  bear  the  tyranny  of  his 
mother,  caused  her  to  be  murdered,  upon  which  his  subjects  revolted, 
and  restored  Lathyrus.      The  remainder  of  this   prince's  reign  wa» 

11 


162  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

passed  in  tranquillity.  He  died  b.  c.  81,  leaving  behind  him  one  le. 
gitimate  daughter,  Berenice,  and  two  natural  sons,  Ptolemy  of  Cyprus 
and  Ptolemy  Auletes  [the  jlute-player).  A  long  series  of  obscure  civil 
wars,  and  imintercsting  intrigues  with  the  Roman  senate,  followed. 
They  ended  in  placing  Ptolemy  Auletes  on  the  throne,  which,  however, 
he  retained  only  three  years. 

Auletes  left  four  legitimate  children  ;  but  his  daughter,  the  too  cel- 
ebrated Cleopatra,  set  aside  the  claims  of  her  brothers  and  sister,  by 
the  influence  which  her  personal  charms  gave  her  wit^  lulius  Csesar, 
and  afterward  with  Mark  Antony.  The  battle  of  Actium  Avas  fatal  to 
her  and  her  protector.  In  the  year  following  that  decisive  engagement 
she  was  taken  prisoner  by  Augustus  Ca;sar,  and  poisoned  herself  to 
avoid  being  led  in  triumph  (b.  c.  30).  Egypt  thenceforth  became  a 
Roman  province,  but  it  preserved  its  commercial  importance ;  and 
Alexandria  long  contijiucd  to  be  the  most  wealthy  and  busy  city  of 
trade  in  the  world. 

Skction  IV. — History  of  the  Minor  Kingdoms  in  Western  Asia. 

FROM   B.   C.   301   TO  THE   BIRTPI  OF  CHRIST. 

The  principal  kingdoms  formed  from  the  fragments  of  the  Macedo- 
nian monarchy  in  Avestern  Asia  Avere  :  1,  Per'gamus ;  2,  Bith'ynia; 
3,  Paphlagonia ;  4,  Pon'tus  ;  5,  Cappadocia ;  6,  Greater  Armenia  ; 
7,  Lesser  Armenia  ;  8,  Judaea  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  9,  the  com- 
mercial state  of  Petra  and  the  republic  of  Rhodes.  A  very  brief  notice 
will  suffice  for  these  petty  states,  with  the  exception  of  Petra,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Idumeans,  and  Judtea,  which  are  so  important  as  to  require 
separate  sections.  The  little  kingdom  of  Per'gamus,  in  Mysia,  was 
founded  by  Philelae'rus,  the  lieutenant  of  Lysim'achus,  during  the  wars 
of  that  monarch  with  Seleiicus.  It  did  not  attain  any  eminence  before 
the  accession  of  At'talus  I.  (b.c.  224),  whose  alliance  with  the  Romans 
during  the  ^Etolian  and  Macedonian  wars  was  rewarded  by  the  protec- 
tion of  the  republic.  He  was  a  generous  patron  of  literature  and  sci- 
ence, as  were  his  immediate  successors,  Eiimenes  and  At'talus  II. 
The  latter  was  the  most  faithful  ally  the  Romans  had  in  the  east,  and 
his  services  were  rewarded  by  a  gift  of  the  rich  provinces  that  had 
been  taken  from  Antiochus.  His  nephew,  At'talus  III.,  bequeathed 
his  dominions  to  the  Romans,  who  made  this  inheritance  their  first 
Asiatic  province  (b.  c.  130).  Brief  as  was  the  duration  of  this  little 
kingdom,  the  patronage  of  its  enlightened  sovereigns  conferred  the 
most  important  benefits  on  letters.  To  them  we  OAve  the  invention  of 
parchment  [charta  Pergmncna),  and  the  establishment  of  a  library  that 
rivalled  the  library  of  Alexandria  ;  to  which  city,  indeed,  it  was  trans- 
ferred by  Anthony,  as  a  present  to  Cleopatra. 

Bith'ynia  was  created  into  a  kingdom  about  the  same  time  as  Per'- 
gamus. Its  most  remarkable  sovereign  was  Prusias,  a  devoted  ally  of 
the  Romans,  avIio  oflered  to  resign  Hannibal  to  their  vengeance,  and 
had  the  meanness  to  style  himself  a  freedman  of  that  republic  (b.  c.  182). 
He  was  murdered  by  his  own  son  Nicomedes  ;  and  the  parricide  Avas, 
in  his  turn   assassinated  by  Soc'rates,  a  son  that  trod  in  his  father's 


WESTERN  ASIA.  163 

footsteps  Soc'rates  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  Mithri- 
dates,  king  of  Pon'tus  ;  but  on  the  defeat  of  that  monarch,  he  was  de- 
posed by  Syl'la,  and  the  crown  given  to  Nicomedes  III.  This  mon- 
arch died  after  a  brief  reign  (b.  c.  75),  and  bequeathed  his  dominions 
(o  the  Romans. 

Paphlagonia  was,  for  the  most  part,  subject  to  the  kings  of  Pon'tus, 
and  shared  the  fortunes  of  that  country.  Even  under  the  Persian  em- 
pire the  kings  of  Pon'tus  enjoyed  a  qualified  independence,  and  were 
said  to  be  descended  from  the  royal  family  of  the  Achaemen'idae,  as 
well  as  the  Persian  kings.  Pon'tus  became  independent  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Ip'sus  ;  but  the  first  of  its  monarchs  remarkable  in  history  was 
tht  last  that  swayed  its  sceptre,  Mithridatcs  VII.,  deservedly  surnamed 
the  Great.  He  came  to  the  throne  while  yet  a  boy  (b.  c.  121) ;  by  de- 
voting himself  to  manly  sports,  and  inuring  his  body  to  support  extreme 
hardships,  he  acquired  such  great  personal  strength,  that  he  defeated 
all  the  plots  formed  for  his  assassination  by  his  treacherous  guardians. 
As  he  grew  up,  he  became  formidable  to  the  neighboring  princes,  from 
whom  he  wrested  several  important  provinces.  He  then  directed  his 
attention  to  the  countries  around  the  Black  sea,  conquered  the  kingdom 
of  Col'chis,  and  delivered  the  Greek  cities  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese 
from  their  Scythian  oppressors.  His  rising  greatness  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  Romans,  who  had  good  reason  to  suspect  that  he  was  a 
deadly  enemy  of  their  power.  To  strengthen  himself  for  the  coming 
contest,  Mithridates  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Tigranes,  king 
of  Armenia,  and  invited  that  monarch  to  attack  the  allies  of  the  repub- 
lic. At  length  war  was  openly  declared  (b.  b.  89),  and  Mithridates, 
in  the  first  two  campaigns,  became  master  of  lesser  Asia.  He  made 
a  cruel  use  of  his  victory,  by  ordering  all  the  Italian  merchants  resident 
in  Asiatic  cities  to  be  murdered,  and  secured  the  execution  of  his  san- 
guinary edict,  by  giving  up  their  properties  as  rewards  to  the  assassins. 
From  Asia  he  passed  into  Greece,  and  having  captured  several  of  the 
islands,  made  himself  master  of  Athens.  At  length  Syl'la  was  sent 
agaii  St  him:  he  defeated  the  Greek  partisans  of  Mithridates  in  three 
successive  battles,  all  fought  within  the  confines  of  Boeotia ;  while 
Fim'bria,  another  Roman  general,  was  equally  successful  in  Asia. 
Mithridates  was  thus  forced  to  beg  terms  of  peace,  which  Syl'la  readily 
granted  (b.  c.  85),  because  he  was  jealous  of  Fim'bria,  who  belonged 
to  a  rival  faction,  and  was,  besides,  anxious  to  return  to  Italy,  in  order 
\o  rescue  his  party  from  the  destruction  with  which  it  was  threatened 
by  Marius. 

The  large  forces  r?ised  by  Mithridates,  under  the  pretence  of  subdu- 
ing the  Colchians  and  other  nations  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black 
sea,  gave  umbrage  to  Murae'na,  the  Roman  proconsul  of  Asia,  as  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Per'gamus  was  rather  ostentatiously  named  by  the 
senate  (b.  c.  83).  Without  any  formal  declaration  of  war,  he  invaded 
Pon'tus,  but  was  severely  defeated  by  Mithridates,  and  compelled  to  re- 
new the  peace  by  command  of  Syl'la.  Taking  advantage  of  the  civil 
wars  that  raged  in  the  Roman  territories  between  the  partisans  of  Ma- 
rius and  Syl'la,  the  king  of  Pon'tus  made  several  large  additions  to  hia 
kingdom,  and  finally  seized  on  Bith'ynia,  which  Nicrmedes  had  recently 


j64  ancient  history. 

Bequeathed  to  the  Romans  (b.  c.  75).  He  even  attacked  the  Roman 
province  ;  but  he  was  driven  out  by  Julius  Caesar,  then  a  young  student 
in  the  island  of  Rhodes,  who,  without  any  orders  from  the  goveniment, 
assembled  a  few  troops,  and  defeated  the  king's  lieutenants. 

When  the  Roman  senate  heard  of  the  state  of  aflfairs  in  Asia,  they 
appointed  Lucul'lus  to  undertake  the  management  of  the  war ;  but  the 
soldiers  placed  under  his  command  were  so  mutinous,  that  Mithridates 
was  at  first  victorious  both  by  land  and  sea.  Encouraged  by  this  suc- 
cess, the  king  laid  siege  to  Cyz'icus  ;  but  scarcely  had  he  completed 
his  lines,  when  he  found  himself  blockaded  in  turn  by  Lucul'lus,  and, 
after  enduring  the  most  dreadful  hardships,  was  forced  to  purchase  a  re- 
treat by  the  sacrifice  of  the  greater  part  of  his  army.  His  fleet  was, 
soon  after,  almost  wholly  annihilated  in  a  naval  engagement,  and  several 
of  his  best  towns  taken.  Finally,  his  army  mutinied,  and  he  was  forced 
to  abandon  Pon'tus,  and  seek  refuge  with  his  son-in-law,  Tigranes,  in 
Armenia. 

Tigranes  readily  joined  Mithridates  in  renewing  the  war  ;  but  was 
defeated  by  Lucul'lus  (b.  c.  70).  His  courage,  however,  was  soon  re- 
animated ijy  a  great  victory  Avhich  the  king  of  Pon'tus  gained  over 
Triarius,  a  lieutenant  of  Lucul'lus,  who,  contrary  to  his  better  judg- 
ment, had  been  forced  to  hazard  an  engagement  by  the  impetuosity  of 
his  soldiers.  The  main  army  mutinied  against  Lucul'lus  when  they 
heard  of  this  defeat,  and  his  enemies  at  home  made  it  the  pretext  for 
procuring  his  recall.  Glabrio,  his  successor,  remained  inactive  during 
his  year  of  office  ;  and  at  length  the  celebrated  Pom'pey  was  appointed 
to  conduct  the  Mithridatic  war,  and  extraordinary  powers  were  confer- 
red on  him  by  the  Manilian  law — a  law  that  announced  too  plainly  the 
speedy  downfall  of  the  Roman  republic.  Pom'pe),  after  some  mmor 
successes,  blockaded  the  king  in  his  camp,  and  reduced  him  to  gieat 
distress  ;  but  Mithridates,  by  an  unexpected  sally,  broke,  with  his  army, 
through  the  hostile  lines,  and  took  the  road  to  Armenia.  He  was  hotly 
pursued,  overtaken,  and  his  army  routed  with  great  slaughter.  The  un- 
fortunate monarch,  at  the  head  of  eight  hundred  horse,  cut  his  way 
through  the  Roman  army  ;  but  being  closely  pressed,  he  abandoned  these 
faithful  followers,  and,  with  only  three  attendants,  continued  his  flight 
to  Armenia.  Tigranes  gave  no  welcome  reception  to  the  fugitive,  and 
Mithridates  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  the  wilds  of  Scythia.  Pom'- 
pey followed  the  enemy  of  Rome  into  the  deserts  ;  but  after  two  years 
spent  in  warring  against  the  barbarous  nations  round  the  Black  sea,  he 
was  unable  to  hear  any  tidings  of  Mithridates,  and  returned  fully  con- 
vinced of  his  death. 

Scarcely  had  the  Romans  rested  from  the  fatigues  of  this  expedition, 
when  they  were  astounded  by  the  intelligence  of  Mithridates  having  re* 
turned  into  Pon'tus  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  and  recovered 
several  important  fortresses.  But  the  unfortunate  monarch  found  in  his 
kingdom  and  family  worse  enemies  than  his  open  foes.  His  daughters 
were  betrayed  to  the  Romans  by  a  faithless  escort ;  his  army  mutinied  ; 
and,  finally,  his  own  son  revolted,  and  was  acknowledged  king  by  the 
soldiers. 

Borne  down  by  this  complication  of  misfortunes,  the  agrd  monarch 
attempted  to  commit  suicide,  but  weakness  prevented  him  Irom  giving 


WESTERN  ASIA.  165 

himself  a  mortal  wound ;  in  the  meantime  the  Roman  army  broke  into 
his  retreat.  He  was  found  lan^iid,  bleeding  and  deserted,  by  a  Gallic 
soldier,  who  compassionatitig  his  misery,  put  an  end  to  his  pain  and  life 
tvigether  (b.  c.  64).  Thus  ended  the  kingdom  of  Pon'tus  :  after  some 
years  it  was  permitted  to  have  nominal  sovereigns  ;  but  even  the  shadow 
of  independence  was  removed  by  the  emperor  Nero,  and  the  country  be- 
came a  Roman  province. 

Cappadocia  was  one  of  the  Asiatic  K^ingdoms  founded  after  the  battle 
of  Ip'sus ;  none  of  its  monarchs  were  remarkable  in  history,  and  the 
countr}'^  itself  was  proverbial  for  the  infamy  of  its  inhabitants.  Some 
of  the  Cappadocians  were  and  continue  to  be  Troglodytes,  or  dwellers 
in  caves  ;  but  the  period  when  the  excavated  habitations  were  first  con- 
structed is  uncertain. 

Thk  two  Armenias  did  not  become  kingdoms  until  after  the  defeat 
of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Romans  (b.  c.  190),  when  the  lieutenants 
of  the  king  of  Syria  proclaimed  their  independence.  The  only  Arme- 
nian monarch  requiring  notice  was  Tigranes,  the  son-in-law  of  Mithri- 
dates.  He  was  involved  in  the  fate  of  the  king  of  Pon'tus,  and  his 
dominions  were  subjected  to  the  Romans,  under  whose  sway  both  the 
Armenias  continued  until  near  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era, 
when  they  were  seized  by  the  Parthians.  For  several  centuries  the 
possession  of  Armenia  was  contested  by  the  Romans  and  Parthians  ;  and 
when  the  latter  power  was  overthrown,  the  same  country  continued  to 
be  a  constant  source  of  war  between  the  eastern  empire  and  the  restored 
kingdom  of  Persia. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Rhodes  first  became  remarkable  by 
its  gallant  resistance  when  besieged  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  Thirty 
thousand  men  were  employed  in  the  labors  of  this  siege.  When  the 
first  wall  crumbled  under  the  blows  of  the  helepolis  [taker  of  cities),  a 
formidable  engine  of  destruction  invented  by  Demetrius  during  the  siege, 
the  brave  garrison  erected  a  second  with  the  materials  of  their  temples, 
their  theatres,  and  their  houses  ;  and  when  that  was  demolished,  they 
erected  a  third.  Fifty  deputies  from  the  states  of  Greece  came  to  the 
besieger's  camp  as  mediators  :  Demetrius  granted  peace  on  condition  of 
receiving  one  hundred  hostages  and  a  small  auxiliary  force  (a.  c.  305). 
During  the  siege  he  had  shown  his  respect  for  the  works  of  art  that 
ornamented  this  splendid  city,  by  preventing  his  engines  from  playing 
upon  the  buildings  in  which  the  most  celebrated  paintings  of  Protogenes 
were  preserved.  It  was  in  memory  of  this  siege  that  the  wonderful 
Colossus  was  erected. 

In  the  war  between  Antiochus  and  the  Romans,  the  Rhodians  joined 
with  the  latter  :  though  at  first  defeated  in  a  naval  engagement,  they  ex- 
erted themselves  so  strenuously,  that  they  soon  became  masters  of  the 
eastern  sea,  and  obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Syrian  fleet,  even 
though  it  was  commanded  by  the  illustrious  Han'nibal.  But  jealousies 
soon  arose  between  the  two  republics ;  and  in  the  second  Macedonian 
war  the  Rhodians  preserved  a  strict  but  suspicious  neutrality.  Tlu; 
Roman  senate  sent  ambassadors  to  the  islanders,  who  acted  as  supreme 
magistrates  rather  than  as  envoys  ;  and  thenceforward  the  Rhodi'in  ir)- 


166  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

aependence  existed  oniy  .ti  name.  Mithridates  attacked  the  island  when 
he  invaded  Greece ;  but  he  was  repulsed  by  the  inhabitants,  whose 
fidelity  was  rewarded  by  the  constant  protection  of  Syl'la. 

During  the  great  civil  war  of  Rome  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  the 
Rhodian  fleets  fought  sometimes  on  one  side  and  sometimes  on  the 
other ;  but  maintained  under  all  circumstances,  a  very  high  character. 
Pompey  was  refused  admittance  into  the  island  after  his  defeat  at  Phar- 
salia ;  and  th:  murderers  of  Caesar  was  similarly  excluded  during  the 
great  civil  war  that  followed  his  assassination.  Cassius,  in  consequence, 
besieged  the  city  of  Rhodes,  into  which  he  obtained  admittance  by  the 
treachery  of  some  of  the  inhabitants :  he  resigned  the  unfortunate  citi- 
zens to  the  discretion  of  his  licentious  soldiery,  and  extorted  from  the 
inhabitants  all  that  he  could  obtain  by  violence  or  threats.  In  the  reign 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  Ctesar,  the  Rhodians  were  deprived  of  their 
liberties  for  having  crucified  two  Roman  citizens  ;  but  their  privileges 
were  subsequently  restored.  At  length  the  island  was  made  a  Romaw 
province  by  Vespasian  (a.  d.  70). 

Section  V. — History  of  Bactria  and  Parthia. 
FROM  B.  c.  256   TO   B.  c.  226. 

The  Bactrian  kingdom  difi^ered  from  those  whose  histoiy  was  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  section,  in  being  a  Grecian  state,  although  es- 
tablished at  the  extreme  western  verge  of  the  ancient  Persian  empire. 
It  was  formed  into  a  state  by  Diodatus,  the  Grecian  governor  (b.  c. 
254),  who  threw  off  his  allegiance  to  the  Syrian  king,  Antiochus  II. 
The  Bactrian  monarchs  made  extensive  conquests  in  India,  and  at  one 
time  (b.  c.  181)  their  dominions  extended  to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges 
and  the  frontiers  of  China.  The  nomad  hordes  of  the  desert  that  re- 
side to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  who,  both  in  ancient  and  mod- 
em times,  have  frequently  changed  the  political  aspect  of  the  western 
world,  poured  down  on  the  descendants  of  the  Macedonian  colonists, 
and  forced  them  to  retreat  toward  the  south.  The  Greeks,  driven  from 
Bac'tria,  appear  to  have  ascended  the  Ox'us  (b.  c.  126)  and  to  have 
maintained  their  independence  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  lofty  mountains 
called  the  Indian  Caucasus  [Hindu  Kusli)  to  a  very  late  period,  while 
their  ancient  territory  was  annexed  to  the  Parthian  empire.  It  is  not 
yet  determined  whether  any  traces  can  be  found  of  this  Greek  colony 
at  the  present  day ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  of  the  enterprising 
travellers  now  exploring  northern  India  will  direct  their  attention  to  the 
subject. 

The  Parthian  kingdom  was  founded  about  the  same  time  as  the  Bac- 
trian, by  some  of  the  nomad  hordes  that  subsequently  overthrew  the 
latter.  Its  general  limits  were  the  Euphrates,  the  In'dus,  and  the  Ox'- 
us ;  but  its  dominions  were  sometimes  extended  beyond  these  streams. 
Though  thus  holding  the  ancient  empire  of  Persia,  the  Parthian  mon- 
archs neve-!*  regarded  themselves  as  descendants  of  Cy'rus  ;  they  pre* 
ferred  the  Greek  religion,  manners,  and  customs,  to  those  of  the  Persians, 
and  they  conferred  great  privileges  on  the  Grecian  colonies  that  were 
established  in  their  dominions      To  the  modern  Persians  this  dynasty 


BACTRIA  AND  PARTHIA.  16? 

which  rule  A  their  country  for  more  than  four  centurins,  is  scarcely 
known  even  by  name  ;  a  clear  proof  that  the  Parthians  and  their  reign- 
ing family,  the  Arsac'idfe,  must  have  been  foreigners.  In  one  import- 
ant respect  they  imitated  the  exclusive  policy  of  the  Tartar  rulers  of 
China,  excluding  strangers  from  their  dominions,  and  sacrificing  com- 
merce to  their  watchful  jealousy.  Their  establishment  in  the  Persian 
empire  consequently  effected  a  great  revolution  in  the  lines  of  traffic 
between  the  eastern  and  western  world.  The  East  India  trade,  stop- 
ped in  its  passage  through  Babylonia,  was  thrown  further  to  the  south, 
and  began  to  shape  its  course  through  northern  Arabia  and  the  Red 
sea.  To  this  change,  the  great  wealth  and  splendor  obtained  by  the 
great  commercial  cities  Palmy^ra  and  Alexand'ria  must  be  chiefly  at- 
tributed. 

Arsaces  I.  commenced  the  war  of  independence  (b.  c.  256)  by  put- 
ting to  death  the  Syrian  governor  of  upper  Asia,  who  had  offered  a 
grievous  insult  to  his  brother.  The  heads  of  the  Parthian  tribes  that 
supported  him  formed  a  government  similar  to  the  feudal  aristocracy 
of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages,  giving  to  the  monarch  little  more  than 
nominal  authority,  and  making  the  crown  elective,  under  the  restriction, 
however,  that  the  monarch  should  be  chosen  from  the  family  of  the 
Arsac'id8e.  War  with  the  Syrian  kings,  of  course  followed ;  but  the 
light  cavaliy  of  the  Parthian  troops,  which  have  always  formed  the 
main  strength  of  the  armies  of  central  Asia,  by  their  rapid  evolutions 
disconcerted  the  steady  discipline  of  the  Syrians  and  Macedonians.  It 
was  a  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  Parthian  tactics,  that  their  armies 
were  never  so  formidable  as  in  flight :  when  the  enemies  advanced  in 
pursuit,  as  if  to  assured  victory,  these  active  horsemen  turned  on  their 
steeds,  and  assailed  them  with  a  flight  of  arrows  which  invariably 
threw  them  into  confusion.  The  wars  between  the  Parthians  and 
Syrians  terminated  (b.  c.  131)  in  the  total  annihilation  of  the  Syrian 
army  led  by  Antiochus  Sidetes. 

During  half  a  century  after  their  deliverance  from  the  rivalry  of  the 
Syrians,  the  attention  of  the  Parthian  monarchs  was  chiefly  engrossed 
by  the  eastern  nomad  tribes,  whom  the  fall  of  the  Bactrian  kingdom  had 
set  at  liberty  to  attack  the  rich  provinces  of  southern  Asia.  These 
hordes  were  either  subdued  or  incorporated  with  the  Parthian  army ; 
and  scarcely  had  this  danger  been  averted,  when  the  Romans,  being 
brought  into  contact  with  the  Parthians  by  their  occupation  of  the  king- 
dom oi"  Mithridates,  prepared  to  contend  with  them  for  the  empire  of 
Asia. 

The  war  commenced  by  Cras'sus,  the  Roman  triumvir,  invading 
Par'thia  (b.  c.  53) :  his  incapacity  led  to  the  utter  annihilation  of  his 
army  and  the  loss  of  his  own  life.  In  the  Roman  civil  wars  the  Par- 
thians supported  the  cause  of  Pom'pey,  and  afterward  that  of  Brutus  and 
Oas'sius.  Subsequently,  alarmed  at  the  great  power  to  which  Augus'- 
tus  Cffisar  attained,  they  sought  terms  of  peace,  and  purchased  it  by 
surrendering  the  arms  and  standards  which  had  been  taken  from  the 
army  of  Cras'sus.  The  wars  between  the  Parthians  and  the  succeed- 
ing Roman  emperors  were  almost  incessant ;  but  none  of  them  pro- 
duced any  decisive  result.  After  Christianity  began  to  spread,  its  prog- 
ress was  tolerated,  if  not  directly  encouraged,  by  the  Parthian  mon 


168  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

archs.,  who  liberally  afforded  shelter  to  Christians  flying  from  the  per- 
seculions  of  the  pagans,  and  we  must  add,  from  tliose  of  their  brethren 
who  beloiigeil  to  a  different  sect.  But  unfortunately  the  Arsac'idae 
never  gained  the  affections  of  their  Persian  subjects  :  after  the  lapse 
of  more  than  four  centuries,  the  Parthians  continued  to  be  an  army  of 
occupation,  separated  by  habits,  prejudices,  and  feelings,  from  the  great 
bulk  of  the  nation.  At  length  Ardeshir  Bab'egan,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Artaxer'xes,  a  native  Persian,  of  the  illustrious  house  of  Sassan,  de- 
scended, or  claiming  to  be  descended,  from  the  ancient  line  of  Cy'rus 
and  Jemshid,  raised  the  national  standard  of  Persia,  and  drove  the 
Parthians  into  the  northern  mountains  and  deserts  (a.  d.  226).  Iran, 
the  ancient  national  name  of  Persia,  was  revived ;  the  religion  of  Zer- 
dusht  restored  in  its  pristine  splendor ;  the  progress  of  Christianity 
eastward  was  checked,  and  it  was  thrown  back  on  the  western  world, 
bearing  unfortunately  too  many  marks  of  its  having  been  brought  into 
close  contact  with  oriental  mysticism  and  superstition.  The  destruc- 
tion of  the  Parthian  kingdom,  in  Asiatic  annals,  holds  the  same  place 
as  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire  in  European  :  it  forms  the  epoch 
which  separates  ancient  from  modern  history.  We  shall  resume  Per- 
sian history  under  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Sassan  in  the  second 
part  of  this  work. 

Skction  VI. — History  of  Iclumea,  and  its  capital,  Petra. 

FROM  B.   C.   1048  TO   B.   C.   133. 

While  the  Israelites  were  detained  in  bondage  in  Egj^pt,  the  Edom- 
ites,  descended  from  Esau,  became  a  rich  and  powerful  i  ation,  posses- 
sing a  rampart  of  impregnable  fortresses  in  the  fastnesses  of  Mount 
Seir,  a  country  generally  fruitful,  and  a  command  of  the  great  roads  by 
which  the  earliest  commercial  caravans  travelled.  Its  capital  city, 
called  Bozrah  in  the  Old  Testament  and  Petra  by  the  Greeks,  was 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hor,  in  a  deep  valley ;  the  only  means  of 
access  to  this  metropolis  was  through  a  defile  partly  natural,  and  partly 
cut  through  the  solid  rocks,  which  hung  over  the  passage,  and  often  in 
tercepted  the  view  of  the  heavens.  The  breadth  of  this  pass  is  barely 
sufficie'^t  for  two  horsemen  to  ride  abreast,  and  near  the  entrance,  a 
bold  arcn  is  thrown  across  at  a  great  height  connecting  the  opposite 
cliffs.  The  pass  gradually  slopes  downward  for  about  two  miles,  the 
mountain-ridge  still  retaining  its  level,  until  at  the  close  of  the  dark 
perspective,  a  multitude  of  columns,  statues,  and  graceful  cornices,  burst 
upon  the  view,  retaining  at  the  present  day  their  forms  and  colors  as 
little  injured  by  time  and  exposure  as  if  they  were  just  fresh  from  the 
chisel.  The  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  countless  exca- 
vations, of  which  some  are  private  dwellings  and  some  sepulchres. 
To  this  extraordinary  peculiarity  the  prophet  Jeremiah  probably  alludes 
in  his  denunciation  of  God's  vengeance  against  Edom.  "  Thy  terrible- 
ness  hath  deceived  thee,  and  the  pride  of  thine  heart,  O  thou  that  dwel- 
lest  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  that  holdeet  the  height  of  the  hill :  though 
thou  shouldest  make  thy  nest  as  high  as  the  eagle,  I  will  bring  thee 
down  from  thence,  saith  the  Lord." 

When  David  ascended  the  throne  of  Israel,  the  Edomites  had  greatly 


IDUMEA. 


169 


extended  their  dominions  ;  they  possessed  the  ports  of  Elath  and  Ez'ion 
Geber  on  the  Arabian  sea  (gulf  of  Akaba),  and  through  these  places  had 
opened  a  flourishing  trade  with  India  and  Ethiopia.  They  also  had  an 
extensive  commerce  with  Phoenicia,  Egypt,  and  Babylonia.  David's 
general,  Abishai,  invaded  Idumea,  routed  the  Edomites  with  great 
slaughter  in  the  valley  of  salt,  and  compelled  them  to  receive  garrisons 
into  their  cities.  In  the  reign  of  Sol'omon,  Hadad,  an  Edomite  prince 
who  had  sought  shelter  in  Egypt  when  his  native  country  was  subdued, 
returned  to  E'dom  and  headed  a  formidable  revolt. 

The  only  account  we  have  of  Hadad  is  contained  in  the  first  Book  of 
Kings,  and  is  too  remarkable  to  be  omitted.  "  God  stirred  up  an  adver- 
sary unto  Solomon,  Hadad  the  Edomite  :  he  was  of  the  king's  seed  in 
Edom.  For  it  came  to  pass,  when  David  was  in  Edom,  and  Joab  the 
captain  of  the  host  was  gone  up  to  bury  the  slain,  after  he  had  smitten 
every  male  in  Edom  (for  six  months  did  Joab  remain  there  -vith  all 
Israel,  until  he  had  cut  off  every  male  in  Edom)  ;  that  Hadad  fled,  he 
and  certain  Edomites  of  his  father's  servants  with  him,  to  go  into 
Egypt ;  Hadad  being  yet  a  little  child.  And  they  arose  out  of  Midian, 
and  came  to  Paran  :  and  they  took  men  with  them  out  of  Paran,  and  they 
came  to  Egypt,  unto  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt;  which  gave  him  a 
house,  and  appointed  him  victuals,  and  gave  him  land.  And  Hadad 
fmmd  great  favor  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh,  so  that  he  gave  him  to  wife 
the  sister  of  his  own  wife,  the  sister  of  Tahpenes  the  queen.  And  the 
sister  of  Tahpenes  bare  him  Gen'ubath  his  son,  whom  Tahpenes  wean- 
ed in  Pharaoh's  house  :  and  Gen'ubath  was  in  Pharaoh's  household 
among  the  sons  of  Pharaoh.  And  when  Hadad  heard  in  Egypt  that 
David  slept  with  his  fathers,  and  that  Joab  the  captain  of  the  host  was 
dead,  Hadad  said  to  Pharaoh,  Let  me  depart,  that  I  may  go  to  mine 
own  country.  Then  Pharaoh  said  unto  him.  But  what  hast  thou  lacked 
with  me,  that,  behold,  thou  seekest  to  go  to  thine  own  country  ?  And 
he  answered,  Nothing ;  howbeit  let  me  go  in  any  wise."  The  native 
traditions  of  the  country  in  some  degree  preserve  the  memory  of 
Hadad's  reign,  for  one  of  the  ruined  edifices  at  Petra  is  still  called  by 
the  Arabs,  "  the  Palace  of  Pharaoh's  daughter." 

It  seems  probable  that  Hadad's  efforts  were  only  partially  successful, 
for  we  find  that  the  Edomites  continued  subjects  to  the  kings  of  Judah, 
until  the  reign  of  Jehoram  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat  (b.  c.  888).  "  In  his 
days,"  says  the  sacred  historian,  "  Edom  revolted  from  under  the  hand  of 
Judah,  and  made  a  king  over  themselves.  So  Joram  went  over  to  Zair, 
and  all  tJie  chariots  with  him :  and  he  rose  by  night,  and  smote  the 
Edomites  which  compassed  him  about,  and  the  captains  of  the  chariots  ; 
and  the  people  fled  into  their  tents.  Yet  Edom  revolted  from  under 
the  hand  of  Judah  unto  this  day.  Then  Lib'nah  revolted  at  the  same 
time."  Lib'nah  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  and  its  adherence  to  Edom  tended  to  perpetuate  the 
hereditary  animosity  between  the  two  nations.  Amaziah,  the  son  of 
Joash,  severely  punished  the  hostility  of  the  Edomites,  for  we  read  in  the 
second  Book  of  Chronicles,  that  "  Amaziah  strengthened  himself,  and 
lei  forth  his  people,  and  went  to  the  valley  of  salt,  and  smote  of  the 
children  of  Seir  ten  thousand.  And  other  ten  thousand  left  alive  did 
the  children  of  Judah  carry  away  captive,  and  brought  them  unto  the 


170  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

top  of  the  rock,  and  cast  them  down  from  the  top  jf  tho  rock,  tluit  thej 
were  all  broken  in  pieces." 

When  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  the  Babylonians,  the  Edoniitea 
took  an  active  part  in  the  calamities  inflicted  upon  the  Jews.  The 
prophet  Oljadiah  declares  that  Edom  "  stood  on  the  other  side  in  the 
day  that  the  strangers  carried  away  captive  Judah's  forces,  and  for- 
eigners entered  into  his  gates  and  cast  lots  upon  Jerusalem.  Edom 
rejoiced  over  the  children  of  Judah  in  the  day  of  their  destruction,  spoke 
proudly  in  the  day  of  their  di.stress,  and  laid  hands  on  their  substance 
in  the  day  of  their  calamity."  The  Edomites  also  "  stood  in  the  cross- 
way,  to  cut  off  those  that  did  escape,  and  to  deliver  up  those  that  re- 
mained." Edom  (says  the  propliet  A'mos),  "  did  pursue  his  brother 
with  the  sword,  and  did  cast  off  all  pity,  and  his  anger  did  tear  per- 
petually, and  he  kept  his  wrath  for  ever."  During  the  captivity  of  the 
Jews,  the  Edomites  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Palestine  and  seized 
the  city  of  Hebron  ;  the  name  of  Idumeans  was  thenceforth  given  to 
those  who  occupied  the  frontiers  of  Palestine,  while  those  who  re- 
mained in  Petra  were  called  Nabatheans.  Against  this  people  Athe- 
nse'us,  the  general  of  Antig'onus,  was  sent  during  the  wars  between  the 
successors  of  Alexander  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  Nabatheans  having 
gone  to  a  neighboring  fair  to  meet  a  caravan  from  the  south  to  receive 
spices  in  exchange  for  the  woollen  goods  of  Tyre,  had  left  their  passes 
lightly  guarded ;  Athen8e'us  therefore  surprised  the  magazines  at  Petra 
and  returned  laden  with  plunder  to  the  borders  of  Syria.  The  Naba 
theans,  enraged  at  the  tidings  of  this  calamity,  collected  their  forces, 
and  urging  their  dromedaries  with  incredible  velocity  through  the  desert^ 
overtook  Athenas'us  near  Gdza,  and  almost  annihilated  his  army. 
Demetrius  hasted  to  avenge  this  loss,  but  the  fastnesses  and  deserts  of 
Arabia  baffled  his  intentions  ;  we  are  told  that  an  Arab  chief  addressed 
the  Grecian  general  from  a  rock,  and  set  before  him  in  such  lively 
terms  the  danger  of  the  enterprise  in  which  he  was  engaged,  that 
Demetrius,  convinced  of  the  great  hazard  of  his  undertaking,  imme- 
diately returned  to  Syria. 

The  Idumeans  who  had  settled  in  Judea,  exhibited  tneir  ancient 
aversion  to  the  Jews  during  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees  ;  but  they  were 
severely  punished  by  Judas  Maccabseus,  who  took  and  sacked  their 
chief  city  Hebron,  destroyed  more  than  forty  thousand  of  their  soldiers, 
and  levelled  their  strongholds  to  the  ground.  Their  subjugation  was 
completed  by  John  Hyr'canus  (b.  c.  130),  who  reduced  them  to  the 
necessity  of  embracing  the  Jewish  religion  or  quitting  their  country. 
They  chose  the  former  alternative,  and  submitting  to  be  circumcised, 
became  so  completely  incorporated  with  the  Jews,  that  they  were  re- 
garded as  one  people,  so  that  during  the  first  century  after  Christ,  the 
name  of  Idumean  was  lost  and  quite  disused. 

The  Nabatheans  long  maintained  their  independence.  Petra,  theii 
capital  city,  was  vainly  besieged  by  the  Romans  under  Pompey  and 
Trajan  ;  but  it  sunk  by  gradual  decay  when  the  commerce  which  had 
caused  its  prosperity  was  directed  into  other  channels.  So  completely 
was  ancient  E'dom  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  that  the  very  exist- 
ence of  the  once  flourishing  Petra  fell  into  oblivion,  and  its  recent  dis- 
covery in  the  loneliness  of  its  desolation  seemed  as  if  the  earth  had 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  171 

given  up  the  dead.  No  human  habitation  is  in  it  or  near  it,  and  the 
fearful  denunciation  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  is  hterally  fultilled :  "  The 
cormorant  and  the  bittern  shall  possess  it ;  the  owl  also  and  the  raven 
shall  dwell  in  it :  and  he  shall  stretch  out  upon  it  the  line  of  confusion, 
and  the  stones  of  emptiness.  They  shall  call  the  nobles  thereof  to  the 
kingdom,  but  none  shall  be  there,  and  all  her  princes  shall  be  nothing. 
And  thorns  shall  come  up  in  her  palaces,  nettles  and  brambles  in  the 
fortresses  thereof;  and  it  shall  be  a  habitation  of  dragons,  and  a  court 
for  owls.  The  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  also  meet  with  the  wild 
beasts  of  the  island,  and  the  satyr  shall  cry  to  his  fellow  ;  the  screech 
owl  also  shall  rest  there,  and  find  for  herself  a  place  of  rest.  There 
shall  the  great  owl  make  her  nest,  and  lay,  and  hatch,  and  gather  juder 
her  shadow :  there  shall  the  vultures  also  be  gathered,  every  one  with 
her  mate." 

Section  VII. —  IV;e  History  of  the  Jews  from  their  return  out  of  the  Boi.ylonisfi 
Captivity  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. 

FROM    B.     C.    536    TO    A.    D.    73. 

When  Cy'rus,  as  God  had  foretold,  issued  a  decree  permitting  the 
return  of  the  Jews  to  their  native  laud  (c.  c.  536),  he  intrusted  the  ex- 
ecution of  it  to  Zerubbab'el,  who  was  the  grandson  of  the  last  king  of 
Judah.  The  number  of  those  who  returned  appears  not  to  have  ex- 
ceeded fifty  thousand  persons  ;  and  hence  the  Jewish  traditions  declare 
that  "  only  the  bran  came  out  of  Babylon,  v/hile  the  flour  stayed  behind." 
When  the  returned  exiles  began  to  rebuild  their  city,  the  Samaritans, 
who  were  descended  from  the  mixed  multitude  which  had  occupied  the 
country  around  Samaria  when  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  away  captive 
by  the  Assyrians,  applied  to  Zerubbab'el  to  receive  them  into  commu- 
nion, and  thus  form  a  single  nation.  The  application  was  peremptorily 
refused,  and  hence  arose  the  grievous  feuds  between  the  Jews  and  the 
Samaritans  which  continued  to  rage  during  the  six  succeeding  cen- 
turies. 

The  Samaritans,  after  their  repulse,  successfully  exerted  themselves 
to  impede  the  progress  of  the  work,  representing  to  the  Persian  court 
that  the  Jews  sought  to  erect  a  fortress,  which  might  become  the  focus 
of  a  general  insurrection,  and  sending  out  armed  detachments  to  harass 
those  who  were  employed  in  collecting  materials.  Darius  Hystas'pes, 
however,  renewed  the  decree  of  Cy'rus  (b.  c.  518),  and  the  Jews 
taking  courage,  labored  so  strenuously,  that  in  three  years  the  temple  was 
completed.  Under  the  reign  of  Xer'xes,  the  Jews  appear  to  have  been 
treated  with  great  respect :  they  furnished  a  contingent  to  the  army 
which  that  monarch  led  into  Greece,  and  are  said  to  have  shown  more 
bravery  than  any  other  division  of  the  host. 

Artaxer'xes,  the  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture,  was  induced  by  his  wicked 
vizier,  Ilaman,  to  issue  an  edict  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Jews  ;  but  his 
queen,  Est'her,  who  was  of  Jewish  descent,  revealed  to  the  monarch 
the  wickedness  of  his  minister,  and  obtained  from  liim  a  second  procla- 
mation, permitting  the  Jews  to  stand  upon  their  defence.  Soon  after- 
ward, probably  through  the  queen's  iniluence.  Ez'ra  received  a  com- 


172  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

mission  from  Artaxer'xes  to  return  to  Jerusa,';em,  with  as  many  as  chos« 
to  accompany  him,  and  there  to  regulate  all  matters  of  church  and  state 
as  he  should  deem  most  expedient. 

Ez'ra  continued  to  rule  the  Jews  for  about  thirteen  years,  during  which 
time  he  collected  all  the  sacred  books,  arranged  them  in  order,  and 
thus  formed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  restored  the  worship 
of  the  temple,  according  to  its  ancient  foirm  before  the  captivi'.y,  adding 
particular  prayers  and  thanksgivings  for  the  feiitivals,  which  were  added 
to  commemorate  the  dedication  of  the  new  temple,  and  the  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  the  malice  of  Haman.  Oia  account  of  these  services, 
the  Jews  regarded  him  as  a  second  Moses,  3nd  assert  that  the  blessings 
he  conferred  on  their  nation  were  not  inferior  to  tliose  derived  from  their 
great  legislator. 

Ez'ra  was  succeeded  in  the  government  by  Nohemiah,  who  had  been 
cup-bearer  to  the  king  of  Persia  (b.  c.  445).  Under  his  administration 
the  fortifications  of  the  city  were  completed,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
made  by  the  Samaritans  and  other  adversaries  ;  several  evils  which  had 
arisen  in  the  government  were  corrected,  aiid  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  strictly  enforced.  After  Nehemiah's  death,  Judea  appears  to 
have  been  joined  to  the  satrapy  of  Syria,  and  the  government  to  have 
been  administered  by  the  high-priests  under  the  Persian  prefect.  When 
Alexander  invaded  the  Persian  empire,  the  Jews,  faithful  to  their  obliga- 
tions, resisted  him  while  they  could ;  but  when  the  conquest  of  Tyre 
left  them  exposed  to  the  victor,  the  high-priest  Jaddua  made  offers  of 
submission,  which  were  graciously  accepted. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  the  division  of  his  empire  among 
his  generals,  Judea  was  exposed  to  great  calamities  ;  being  situate  be- 
tween Syria  and  Egypt,  it  was  coveted  by  the  rulers  of  both,  and  suf- 
fered severely  from  alternate  invasions.  Ptolemy  Soter  besieged 
Jerusalem,  and  stormed  it  on  the  sabbath-day  ;  he  carried  away  one 
hundred  thousand  captives  ;  whom  he  dispersed  through  Egypt,  Lib'ya, 
and  the  country  round  Gyrene,  where  their  posterity  continued  to  exist 
as  a  separate  people  for  several  centuries.  During  this  anxious  period, 
Simon  surnamed  the  Just,  possessed  the  high-priesthood  ;  he  was  em- 
inent for  his  virtues  as  a  prince  and  governor,  but  he  was  still  more 
remarkable  for  hiS  piety.  It  was  under  his  direction  that  the  canon  of 
the  Old  Testament  was  completed,  and  thenceforward  received  and 
trar  emitted  to  future  generations  without  further  revisal  or  correction 
(b.  -•  292).  It  was  about  this  time  that  the  sect  of  the  Sa/Mucees  was 
formed,  which  denied  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection  and  a  future 
state.  This  creed  was  chiefly  embraced  by  the  rich  and  powerful, 
while  the  opposite  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees  was  more  popular  with  tlie 
lower  orders.  In  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadel'phus,  and  under  hia 
patronage,  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Jews  residing  in  Egypt.  This  version  is  usually  called 
the  Septuagint,  because,  according  to  tradition,  its  preparation  was  in- 
trusted to  seventy  persons.  In  general  the  Egyptian  monarchs  proved 
kind  sovereigns  to  their  Jewish  subjects,  and  it  was  with  equal  folly 
and  ingratitude  that  they  abandoned  the  cause  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes, 
and  placed  themselves  under  Antiochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria. 
The  descendants  of  Selciicus,  who  possessed  the  kingdom  of  Syria, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  173 

were  anxious  to  eslablish  a  uniformity  of  customs  throughout  their  do- 
minions, and  to  frame  all  institutions,  civil  and  religious,  on  a  Grecian 
model.  We  hare  already  seen  how  their  effort  to  Hellenize  the  Per- 
sians led  to  their  being  deprived  of  the  empire  of  upper  Asia  ;  but  thia 
loss  did  not  hinder  tliem  from  making  similar  attempts  on  the  Jews.  A 
pretext  for  interference  was  afforded  during  the  high  ;,riesthood  of 
Onias,  who  expelled  Simon,  the  governor  of  the  temple.  Simon  sought 
refuge  with  the  Syrians,  and  informed  them  that  there  were  vast  treas- 
ures preserved  in  the  sanctuary  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  Syrian  monarch 
Seleucus,  whose  own  resources  were  exhausted,  sent  his  servants  to 
bring  them  to  Antioch.  Onias  had  sufficient  energy  to  prevent  this 
profanation ;  he  <vent  in  person  to  Seleucus,  and  afforded  him  such  sat- 
isfactory explanations  that  Simon  was  banished. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  soon  after  succeeding  to  the  throne  of  his  fa- 
ther Seleucus,  was  bribed  to  deprive  Onias  of  tiie  priesthood;  he 
conferred  it  on  Jason,  who  had  already  so  far  conformed  to  Greek  cus- 
toms as  to  abandon  his  original  name,  Jesus.  Under  Jason's  rule  a 
general  apostacy  overspread  the  nation,  the  service  of  the  temple  was 
neglected,  academics  on  the  Greek  model  were  opened  in  Jerusalem, 
and  the  high-priest  himself  publicly  sent  an  offering  to  the  Tyrian  Her'- 
cules.  Jason  was,  in  his  turn,  supplanted  by  his  brother  Menelaus, 
who  stripped  the  temple  of  all  its  ornaments  to  pay  the  large  bribe  he 
had  promised  to  the  king.  Onias,  who  since  his  deposition  had  lived 
at  Antioch,  remonstrated  against  this  sacrilege ;  his  denunciations 
alarmed  the  wicked  Menelaus,  and  he  procured  the  murder  of  the  wor- 
thy priest,  who  fell  regretted  even  by  the  idolaters.  Menelaus  now 
pursued  his  iniquitous  course  without  restraint,  until  the  multitude,  un- 
able to  endure  his  exactions,  raised  a  formidable  riot  in  the  city,  and 
killed  the  captain  of  the  Syrian  guard,  which  had  been  brought  to  pro- 
tect the  high-priest.  The  sanhedrim,  or  Jewish  council,  allayed  the 
tumult,  and  sent  three  deputies  to  represent  the  state  of  affairs  to  the 
king,  Antiochus,  and  expose  the  crimes  of  Menelaus.  But  the  crafty 
priest  was  prepared  to  meet  the  danger  ;  he  had  won  the  royal  favor- 
ites by  large  bribes,  and  at  their  instigation  the  deputies,  when  they 
prest-ited  themselves  to  Antiochus,  instead  of  being  heard  were  hur- 
ried to  execution.  This  atrocity  was  so  revolting,  that  the  Tyrians, 
though  generally  hostile  to  the  Jews,  showed  their  sense  of  the  injus- 
tice that  had  been  committed  by  giving  the  bodies  of  the  unfortunate 
deputies  an  honorable  burial. 

Antiochus  invaded  Egypt  (b.  c.  170),  and  while  he  was  engaged  in 
the  conquest  of  that  country,  a  report  was  spread  through  Syria  and 
Palestine,  that  he  had  been  killed  before  Alexandria.  Jason,  believing 
that  this  was  a  favorable  opportunity  for  recovering  the  authority  of 
which  he  had  been  deprived,  mustered  a  small  army,  marched  to  Jeru 
salem,  and  being  admitted  into  the  city  by  some  of  his  partisans,  butch 
ered  all  whom  he  suspected  of  opposing  his  claims.  The  return  of 
Antiochus  soon  induced  Jason  to  seek  shelter  in  exile ;  he  wandered 
about  from  city  to  city,  detested  by  all  who  knew  him,  as  a  betrayer  of 
his  country,,  and  monster  of  mankind. 

Antiochus  was  highly  provoked  by  Jason's  rebellion,  especially  as  he 
was  informed  that  the  Jows  had  made  public  rejoicings  on  hearing  tho 


174  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

report  of  his  death.  He  marched  against  Jerusalem,  and,  after  en 
countering  a  sharp  resistance,  forced  his  way  into  the  city.  He  spared 
no  cruehy  against  the  unhappy  inhabitants  ;  "in  three  days  forty  thousand 
were  slain,  and  as  many  more  sold  as  slaves  to  the  neighboring  nations. 
Nor  did  his  fury  stop  here  :  he  entered  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  offered 
unclean  animals  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  polluted  the  whole 
building  by  sprinkling  it  with  water  in  which  flesh  had  been  boiled, 
dedicated  the  temple  itself  to  Jupiter  Olympius,  and  erected  the  statue 
of  that  deity,  "  the  abomination  of  desolation,"  foretold  by  the  prophet 
Daniel,  on  the  altar  of  the  Lord  in  the  inner  court  of  the  temple.  All 
who  refused  to  worship  the  idol  were  cruelly  tortured  .intil  they  either 
complied  or  sunk  under  the  hands  of  the  executioner.  An  edict  was 
issued,  forbidding  the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  cr  of  the  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision ;  and  two  women  having  been  found  guilty  of  circumcising 
their  children  on  the  eighth  day  according  to  the  law  of  Moses,  were 
led  round  the  city  with  the  infants  hung  from  their  necks,  and  then  cast 
headlong  from  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  city  walls.  To  escape 
these  cruelties,  many  of  the  Jews  fled  to  the  craggy  rocks  and  caverns 
which  abound  in  Palestine,  living  upon  wild  roots  and  herbs,  to  avoid 
the  dangers  of  death  or  apostacy. 

Even  in  these  desolate  places  of  refuge  they  were  pursued  by  the 
emissaries  of  the  cruel  king  ;  in  one  cave  more  than  a  thousand  Jews, 
wh'^  had  assembled  to  celebrate  the  sabbath,  were  massacred  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  provincial  governor.  The  noble  constancy  exhibited  by 
many  Jewish  martyrs  of  every  age,  sex,  and  condition,  frequently  com- 
pelled the  idolators  to  yield  them  involuntary  admiration,  and  many  of 
the  Syrian  officers  secretly  evaded  the  orders  of  their  tyrannical  mas- 
ter, and  tried  to  win  the  Jews  by  gentleness  and  persuasion  instead  of 
persecution  and  torture. 

Mattathias,  the  head  of  the  Asmonean  family,  which  was  the  first  in 
the  classes  of  the  hereditary  priesthood,  unable  to  endure  the  scenea 
of  cruelty  and  profaneness  which  were  displayed  at  Jerusalem,  retired 
to  his  native  place,  the  village  of  Modin,  where  for  some  time  he  waa 
permitted  to  follow  the  religion  of  his  fathers.  At  length  a  Syrian  offi- 
cer was  sent  to  this  remote  place  ;  he  assembled  the  inhabitants,  and 
oflered  the  kings.  .%vor  and  protection  as  a  reward  for  apostacy.  Some 
miserable  wretches  complied,  but  as  one  of  them  was  about  to  offer 
sacrifice  to  the  idol,  Mattathias  slew  the  renegade  upon  the  spot.  His 
sono,  imitating  his  example,  overthrew  the  altar,  and  broke  the  idol. 
But  as  they  were  aware  that  their  conduct  would  be  rtgarded  as  trea- 
sonable, they  abandoned  their  village,  and  Avithdrew  into  the  Jewish 
deserts,  whither  they  were  soon  followed  by  bands  of  brave  followers, 
determined  at  all  hazards  to  vindicate  the  law  of  Moses.  Mattathiaa 
restored  the  worship  of  the  Lord  in  several  of  the  cities  from  which  he 
had  expelled  the  Syrian  garrisons,  and  he  would  probably  have  recov- 
ered Jerusalem  itself,  had  he  not  been  prevented  by  death  (b.  c.  166). 
In  his  last  moments  he  appointed  his  son  Jiidas  to  command  the  army 
of  the  faithful,  and  exhorted  his  sons  to  persevere  in  their  heroic  efforts 
for  restoring  the  purity  of  Divine  worship. 

The  contest  between  the  Syrians  and  the  Jewish  insurgents  now  as 
•umed  the  form  and  importance  of  regular  war.     The  latter  were  named 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JKVv'^S.  175 

Maccabees,  because  they  engraved  on  their  standards  the  four  Hebrew 
letters  i;^2i^,  being  the  ini.ial  letters  of  the  words  in  the  eleventh  verse 
of  the  fii'teenth  chapter  of  Exodus,  Mi  Kamoka  B'elohim  Jehovah. 
Under  the  command  of  Judas,  the  Maccabees  gamed  several  great  vic- 
tories over  the  Syrians,  and  reduced  some  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Palestine.  The  defeat  of  the  Syrians  at  Bethzura  was  the  most  signal 
and  decisive  of  his  exploits  ;  the  garrison  at  Jerusalem  fled  from  their 
posts,  and  the  Maccabees  recovered  the  sanctuary  and  metropolis  of 
their  nation  without  meeting  any  resistance.  When  they  came  to 
]\Iount  Zion,  and  beheld  the  desolation  of  the  city  and  temple,  they  rent 
their  clothes,  and  gavf-  vent  to  their  sorrow  in  loud  lamentations.  Jii- 
das  waited  until  their  first  emotions  of  sorrow  had  abated,  and  then, 
having  secured  the  avenues  to  the  city  by  sufhcient  guards,  he  employed 
his  men  in  purifying  the  temple,  and  restoring  its  ruined  altars.  Three 
years  after  its  profanation,  the  holy  place  was  restored,  and  the  feast  of 
its  dedication  celebrated  with  all  possible  solemnity.  But  his  religious 
duties  did  not  divert  Judas  from  his  exertions  to  maintain  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  country ;  he  secured  the  frontiers  by  fortresses,  repulsed 
many  successive  invasions  of  the  Syrians,  and  gained  a  signal  triumph 
over  the  Idumeans,  who  had  joined  the  oppressors  of  the  Jews.  At 
length,  having  engaged  the  Syrian  army  under  Bacchides  against  fear- 
ful odds,  Judas  was  abandoned  by  his  followers,  and  slain,  after  bavins 
destroyed  a  multitude  of  his  enemies  (b.  c.  161).  His  body  was  re- 
covered by  his  brethren,  and  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  father  at 
Modin  ;  his  loss  was  universally  mourned,  and  as  he  was  borne  to  the 
tomb,  the  Jews  sung  a  funeral  hymn,  in  imitation  of  that  which  David 
had  composed  on  the  death  of  Jon'athan,  exclaiming,  "  How  is  the 
mighty  fallen !  How  is  tlie  preserver  of  Israel  slain  !" 

Bacchides  easily  recovered  Jerusalem,  after  which  he  marched 
against  the  remnant  cf  the  Maccabees,  who  still  held  together  under 
the  command  of  Jon'athan,  the  brother  of  Judas.  After  several  inde- 
cisive engagements,  a  treaty  of  peace  Avas  concluded,  and  Jon'athan 
soon  after  was  elevated  to  the  high-priesthood  by  Alexander  Balas,  the 
competitor  with  Demetrius  for  the  Syrian  crown.  Under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Jon'athan,  Judea  soon  became  a  flourishing  and  powerful 
state  ;  he  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Romans  and  the  Spartans,  and 
at  the  same  time!  won  the  friendship  of  the  Syrian  kings  by  his  un- 
shaken fidelity.  He  was  at  length  treacherously  murdered  by  Try'- 
phon,  who  dreaded  th^t  Jon'athan  Avould  oppose  his  usurpation  of  the 
Syrian  throne  (b.  c.  143). 

Simon,  ihe  last  surviving  son  of  Mattathias,  succeeded  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  obtained  from  the  Syrian  king  the  privilege  of  coining  money, 
which  in  the  East  is  regarded  as  an  acknowledgment  of  independence. 
One  of  his  coins  has  been  preserved ;  it  bears  on  the  front  an  inscrip- 
tion in  the  old  Samaritan  character,  which  signifies  "  the  fourth  year," 
and  on  the  reverse  "  from  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem." 

After  a  glorious  administration  of  eight  years,  Simon  and  his  two 
eldest  sons  were  treacherously  murdered  by  his  son-in-law  Ptol'emy  ; 
but  Hyr'canus,  the  younger  son,  escaped,  and  was  immediately  recog- 
nised head  of  the  nation.  He  succeeded  in  finally  shaking  oif  the 
Syrian  yoke,  and  at  the  same  time  he  incorporated  the  Idumeans  wit^ 


176  ANCIENT  HISTJRY. 

the  Jews,  as  has  been  related  in  the  preceding  section.  Hyr'canus 
was  a  zealous  friend  of  the  Pharisees  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign, 
and  they  in  turn  exalted  him  as  the  only  prince  who  had  ever  united 
ihe  three  oflices  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king ;  but  toward  the  close  of 
his  reio-n  he  quarrelled  with  this  haughty  sect,  and  was  in  consequence 
subjected  to  so  many  annoyances,  that  he  died  of  sheer  vexation.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aristobu'lus,  a  weak  and  feeble-minded 
prince,  who  died  of  remorse  for  having  put  his  brother  to  death  on 
groundless  suspicion. 

The  crown  and  priesthood  next  devolved  on  Alexander  Jannae'us, 
whose  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Pharisees.  Several 
insurrections  were  raised  against  him,  which  he  suppressed,  and  pun- 
ished the  revoUcrs  with  great  severity.  He  was  a  brave  and  skilful 
warrior,  but  unfortunately  devoted  to  licentious  pleasures.  Fatigues 
and  debauches  soon  brought  him  to  the  grave  (b.  c.  79)  :  at  his  death 
he  bequeathed  the  regency  to  his  queen  Alexan'dra,  and  the  crown  to 
whichever  of  her  sons,  Hyr'canus  and  Aristobu'lus,  she  should  find 
most  worthy  of  the  succession. 

Alexandra  gave  herself  up  completely  to  the  Pharisaic  faction,  and 
through  the  influence  of  that  party  soon  established  her  authority. 
Anxious  to  retain  power,  she  conferred  the  high-priesthood  on  her  eld- 
est son  Hyr'canus,  because  he  was  of  a  less  enterprising  spirit  than 
his  brother,  and  kept  Aristobu  lus  carefully  secluded  in  private  life.  On 
her  death  Aristobu'lus,  in  spite  of  the  Pharisees,  deposed  his  eldest 
brother,  and  Hyr'canus,  who  had  little  ambition,  gladly  acquiesced  in 
the  new  arrangement.  But  Antip'ater,  an  Idumean  proselyte,  believing 
that  he  might  easily  reign  in  the  name  of  Hyr'canus,  conveyed  that 
prince  to  P6tra,  and  having  levied  a  numerous  army  of  Arabs,  invaded 
Judea,  and  besieged  Aristobu'lus  in  Jerusalem.  Aristobu'lus  appealed 
to  the  Romans,  who  had  now  extended  their  empire  into  Asia ;  and 
both  parties  agreed  that  the  succession  should  be  decided  by  the  victo- 
rious Pompey,  who  had  just  concluded  the  Mithridatic  war. 

Aristobu'lus  soon  had  reason  to  fear  that  Pompey  would  decide  in 
favor  of  his  brother ;  he  therefore  stood  upon  his  defence,  and  fortified 
Jerusalem.  Getting  alarmed  at  the  advance  of  the  Romans,  he  went 
as  a  suppliant  to  Pompey's  camp ;  but  the  Jews  during  his  absence 
closed  the  gates  of  their  city,  and  refused  to  admit  a  Roman  garrison, 
upor.  which  Pompey  ordered  Aristobu'his  to  be  kept  in  chains,  and  laid 
siege  to  Jerusalem.  After  a  siege  of  three  months  the  city  was 
stormed,  and  twelve  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  slain.  The  walls  and 
fortifications  were  levelled  to  the  ground,  but  the  temple  and  its  treas- 
ures were  spared  by  the  conquerors. 

Hyr'canus  was  nominally  restored,  but  all  the  real  power  of  the  state 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Antip'ater.  This  crafty  politician  supported  the 
cause  of  Pompey  during  the  Roman  civil  wars  until  that  general  was 
slain,  and  then  won  the  favor  of  Caesar  by  rendering  him  eflfective  aid 
when  he  was  blockaded  in  Alexandria.  In  reward  for  these  services, 
Her'od,  the  second  son  of  Antip'ater,  was  appointed  governor  of  Gali- 
lee, where  he  signalized  himself  by  extirpating  the  bands  of  robbers 
that  infested  the  country.  In  the  civil  wars  after  the  death  of  Caesar, 
Judea  was  not  less  distracted  than  the  Roman  empire ;  Antip'ater  was 


HISTORY  OP    THE  JEWS.  177 

poisoned,  his  eldest  son  Phas'ael  put  to  death,  and  Her'od  dn\'eu  into 
exile.  Through  the  influence  of  Mark  Antony,  however,  Herod  was 
not  only  restored  to  his  former  powp>r,  but  created  king  of  Judea 
(b.  c.  40).  He  had  to  conquer  his  kingdom;  for  the  Jews  were  reluct- 
ant to  submit  to  an  Idumean,  and  were  not  conciliated  by  his  marriage 
with  Mariani'no,  a  princess  of  the  Asmonean  i-ace. 

Herod's  rule  was  tyrannical  and  oppressive  ;  he  put  to  death  the 
high-priest  Hyr'canus,  his  own  wife  Mariam'ne,  and  several  of  his 
sons,  and  massacred  all  whom  he  suspected  of  being  discontented  with 
his  dominion.  While  he  thus  lived  in  constant  dread  of  being  hurled 
from  hi?  throne  by  his  discontented  subjects,  ''  there  came  wise  men 
from  the  east  to  Jerusalem,  saying,  Where  is  he  that  is  born  king  of  the 
Jews  ?  for  we  have  seen  his  star  in  the  east,  and  are  come  to  worship 
him."  Herod  was  greatly  troubled  by  this  announcement ;  he  assem- 
bled the  chief-priests  and  scribes,  and  inquired  of  them  where  Christ 
should  be  born.  Having  heard  that  Bethlehem  was  the  place  foretold 
by  the  prophets,  he  sent  the  wise  men  thither,  "and  said.  Go  and 
search  diligently  for  the  young  child ;  and  when  ye  have  found  him, 
bring  me  word  again,  that  I  may  come  and  worship  him  also."  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  whose  birth  was-  thus  wondrously  announced,  was 
miraculously  saved  from  the  wrath  of  the  cruel  king,  for  the  wise  men, 
"  being  warned  of  God  in  a  dream  that  they  should  not  return  to  Herod, 
they  departed  into  their  own  country  another  way.  And  when  they 
were  departed,  behold,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  appeareth  to  Joseph  in  a 
dream,  saying.  Arise  and  take  the  young  child  and  his  mother,  and  flee 
mto  Egypt,  and  be  thou  there  until  I  bring  thee  word :  for  Herod  will 
seek  the  young  child  to  destroy  him.  When  he  arose,  he  took  the 
young  child  and  his  mother  by  night,  and  departed  into  Egypt :  and 
was  there  until  the  death  of  Herod."  When  Herod  found  that  the 
wise  men  did  not  return,  he  was  exceeding  "  wroth,  and  sent  forth,  and 
slew  all  the  children  that  were  in  Bethlehem,  and  in  all  the  coasts 
thereof,  from  two  years  old  and  under,  according  to  the  time  which  he 
had  diligently  inquired  of  the  wise  men." 

Herod  did  not  long  survive  this  atrocious  cruelty ;  he  died  in  the 
seventieth  year  of  his  age,  to  the  great  joy  of  all  his  subjects,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Archelaus.  Several  insurrections  were  raised 
by  the  Jews  against  their  new  ruler,  which  were  not  suppressed  with- 
out great  bloodshed.  At  length  all  parties  appealed  to  Csesar,  who 
divided  the  dominions  of  Herod  among  his  children,  giving  Archelaus 
Judea,  with  the  title  of  Eth'narch.  But  Archelaus  prov'ed  so  unworthy 
a  governor,  that  the  Roman  emperor,  wearied  by  the  complaints  urged 
against  him,  deprived  him  of  power,  and  banished  him  into  Gaul. 
Judea  was  now  formally  made  a  Roman  province,  and  subjected  to- 
taxation.  It  was  about  this  time  that  our  blessed  Lord,  being  twelve 
years  of  age,  was  brought  by  his  parents  to  celebrate  the  passover, 
according  to  the  Jewish  custom,  which  obliged  all  males  who  had 
attained  that  age  to  repair  to  the  temple  on  the  three  great  festivals. 

The  Jews  were  very  reluctant  to  submit  to  taxation,  and  frequently 
took  up  arms  against  the  publicans,  or  tax-gatherers  :  but  when  Pilate 
was  appointed  to  the  government  (a.  d.  20)  they  were  still  more 
alarmed  for  their  religion,  because  Pilate,  on  entering  the  city,  brought 

12 


178  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

with  him  the  Roman  standards,  Avhich,  from  their  bearing  images,  th« 
Jews  regarded  as  idols. 

With  great  difficulty  Pilate  was  induced  to  remove  the  offensive 
ensigns,  but  he  soon  provoked  a  fresh  insurrection  by  attempting  to 
plunder  the  sacred  treasury.  He  ordered  his  soldiers  to  fall  on  the 
riotous  mob  that  resisted  the  attempt,  and  many  innocent  lives  were 
sacrificed  in  the  confusion.  The  state  of  society  in  Judea  became  very 
corrupt  during  Pilate's  administration  ;  there  was  no  class  that  escaped 
the  demoralizing  effects  of  profligacy  in  the  government,  and  discontent 
in  the  people.  John  the  Baptist,  a  prophet,  the  forerunner  of  the  Mes- 
siah, appeared  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea,  preaching  the  necessity  of 
repentance,  and  announcing  that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  at  hand. 
The  austerity  of  his  life,  and  the  novelty  of  his  doctrines,  induced 
great  numbers  to  become  his  disciples,  who  were  "  baptized  of  him  in 
Jordan,  confessing  their  sins"  (a.  d.  30).  Many  believed  that  he  v/as 
the  Messiah;  the  .Evangelist  declares,  "the  people  were  in  expecta- 
tion, and  all  men  mused  in  their  hearts  of  John,  whether  he  were  the 
Christ,  or  not ;  John  answered,  saying  unto  them  all,  I  indeed  baptize 
you  with  water  ;  but  one  mightier  than  I  cometh,  the  latchet  of  whose 
shoes  1  am  not  worthy  to  unloose  :  he  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  with  lire  :  whose  fan  is  in  his  hand,  and  he  will  thoroughly 
purge  his  floor,  and  will  gather  the  wheat  into  his  garner;. but  the 
chaff  he  will  burn  with  fire  unquenchable."  But  the  preaching  of  John 
was  only  designed  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  greater  teacher.  Our  Lord 
Jesu-s  Christ  having  attained  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age  presented 
himself  to  be  baptized,  and  as  he  went  up  out  of  the  water  a  remarka- 
ble miracle  attested  his  divinity,  for  "  the  heavens  Avere  opened  unto 
him,  and  John  saw  the  spirit  of  God  descending  like  a  dove,  and  light- 
ing upon  him  :  and  lo,  a  voice  from  heaven  saying.  This  is  my  beloved 
Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased."  Immediately  after  his  baptism  oui 
Lord  entered  on  his  mission,  and  "  preaching  the  gospel  of  the  king- 
dom, and  healing  all  manner  of  sickness  and  all  manner  of  disease 
among  the  people."  But  in  spite  of  his  many  stupendous  miracles, 
the  great  body  of  the  Jews  refused  to  believe  in  his  mission,  and 
plotted  against  his  life. 

Herod  An'tipas,  and  his  brother  Philip,  still  held  the  provinces 
which  had  been  granted  them  after  the  death  of  their  father,  Herod  the 
Great.  The  former  was  married  to  the  daughter  of  an  Arabian,  the 
latter  to  his  own  niece  Herodias.  Herod  An'tipas  sent  away  his  own 
wife  and  married  his  sister-in-law,  though  she  had  cliildren  by  his 
brother  Philip,  which  was  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  law.  The  whole 
nation  exclaimed  against  this  incestuous  union  ;  John  the  Baptist,  espe- 
cially, had  the  courage  to  reprove  both  the  king  and  his  paramour  in 
the  severest  terms.  Herodias,  stung  by  his  reproaches,  induced  her 
husband  to  throw  his  faithful  monitor  into  prison,  and  subsequently,  by 
means  of  her  daughter,  obtained  an  order  for  his  execution.  John  was 
beheaded  in  prison,  but  his  disciples  gave  his  body  an  honorable  burial, 
and  the  whole  nation  lamented  his  death. 

When  our  L,ord  Jesus  Christ  had  fulfilled  the  object  of  his  mission, 
by  preaching  the  glad  tidings  of  salvation,  God  permitted  him  to  be 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  and  put  to  a  cruel  death,  in 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  17« 

order  that  his  sufferings  should  make  atonement  for  the  sins  of  man- 
kind. The  Jews  falsely  accused  him  before  Pilate  of  a  design  to  sub- 
vert the  government ;  Pilate,  though  convinced  of  his  innocence,  pro- 
nounced sentence  of  condemnation,  and  Jesus  was  crucified  between 
two  malefactors  (a.  d.  33) ;  but  God  did  not  "  suffer  his  Holy  One  to 
see  corruption ;"  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day  Christ  was  raised 
from  the  dead,  and  after  continuing  forty  days  with  his  disciples  ascend- 
ed into  heaven.  Previous  to  his  departure  he  promised  his  disciples 
that  they  should  receive  another  Comforter,  and  this  was  fulfilled  by 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

The  nuirder  of  our  blessed  Lord  did  not  prevent  the  spread  of  his 
doctrines ;  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  three  thousand  persons  were  con- 
verted by  the  preaching  of  Peter,  and  every  succeeding  day  fresh  addi- 
tions were  made  to  the  church.  In  the  wicked  and  distracted  condi- 
tion of  Jewish  society,  the  conduct  of  the  Christian  community  afforded 
a  remarkable  example  of  purity,  harmony,  and  self-denial.  "  The  mul- 
titude of  them  that  believed  were  of  one  heart  and  of  one  soul  :  nei- 
ther said  any  of  them  that  aught  of  the  things  which  he  possessed  was 
his  own ;  but  they  had  all  things  common."  In  consequence  of  the 
great  increase  of  the  church,  seven  deacons  Avere  appointed  to  take 
charge  of  "  the  daily  ministration,"  of  whom  the  most  remarkable  was 
Stephen,  who,  "  full  of  faith  and  power,  did  great  ^'onders  and  mira- 
cles among  the  people."  The  rulers  of  the  synagogue,  unable  to  con- 
fute Stephen,  accused  him  to  the  sanhedrim,  or  council,  of  having 
blasphemed  Moses  and  God.  False  witnesses  were  suborned  to  sup- 
port the  accusation,  and  Stephen  was  subjected  to  the  mockery  of  a 
trial.  He  easily  refuted  the  charges  brought  against  him,  but  when  he 
repeated  his  belief  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  his  enemies  were  filled 
with  fury ;  "  they  cried  out  with  a  loud  voice,  and  stopped  their  ears, 
and  ran  upon  him  with  one  accord,  and  cast  him  out  of  the  city,  and 
stoned  him  ;  and  the  witnesses  laid  down  their  clothes  at  a  young 
man's  feet,  whose  name  was  Saul.  And  they  stoned  Stephen,  calling 
upon  God,  and  saying,  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit.  And  he  kneeled 
down,  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice.  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  theii 
charge.     And  when  he  had  said  this,  he  fell  asleep." 

Saul,  who  was  subsequently  called  Paul,  had  consented  to  the  death 
of  Stephen,  and  Avas  so  eager  a  persecutor,  that  he  obtained  a  commis- 
sion to  search  after  the  Christians  who  sought  shelter  in  Damas'cus. 
On  his  way  to  that  city,  he  was  miraculously  struck  to  the  earth,  and 
God  was  graciously  pleased  to  convince  him  of  the  truth  of  the  gos- 
pel. Thenceforward  he  became  a  zealous  apostle  of  the  faith,  speak- 
ing boldly  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  The  continuance  of  the 
persecution  at  Jerusalem  was,  by  divine  providence,  turned  into  a 
means  of  propagating  the  gospel ;  for  the  disciples,  being  dispersed, 
carried  their  doctrines  into  every  city  where  the  Jews  had  synagogues. 

In  the  meantime,  Pilate  was  stripped  of  his  government,  and  sent  to 
answer  charges  of  tyranny  and  misgovernment  before  the  emperor ; 
tiis  defence  was  so  unsatisfactory,  that  he  was  banished  to  Gaul, 
where,  unable  to  endure  the  stings  of  a  guilty  conscience,  he  killed 
himself  with  his  own  sword.  Herod  Agrip'pa,  the  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  had  been  kept  in  prison  during  the  reign  of  the  emperoi 


280  ANCIICNT  HISTORY 

Tiberius,  ht^l  on  iIk;  .-iccossicni  of  Calij('iil;i  In;  w.in  iiol  only  restored  to 
liberty,  iml  ol)t;iiii(!(l  tlie  iiioviuees  that  liad  l)elon>>;(!(l  to  liis  uncle 
Philip,  with  the  tithi  of  kiti^  (a.  d.  41).  Throuj^h  liin  mihicncv,,  ('alig'- 
ula  was  iiuluced  to  r(!call  liiis  edict  for  dcHccratiiiff  tlie  tt;iiij)lo  ol'  Jcru- 
HalcMi  hy  erecting  his  own  statue  in  it,  and  to  pardon  the  Jews  for 
resistint(  the  imperial  eonunands.  In  tlic  rciffn  of  the  (nnperor  Chui- 
diuH,  Af4ri|)'|)a  ohtaincid  the  govcnuncnt  <j1'  all  the  t(!rritori(!H  which  iiad 
belorif^cd  to  his  ^randlatiKir,  llcrod  the  (ircat.  lie  returned  to  his 
kinjfdoni,  where  he  showed  an  extraordinary  attachment  to  the  J(!wish 
ridif^ion  ;  and,  to  |d<!aKe  the  PhariseciH,  he  Ixigan  to  pcrsecutis  tlie 
Christians.  St.  James,  the  brother  ol"  John,  sijuielimes  called  the 
Ijcss,  to  distinguisli  him  I'rom  St.  James  the  first  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
was  !»(diea,ded,  ajid  St.  Peter  cast  into  |)rison  ;  i)ut  Peter  was  miracu- 
lously delivered  by  an  arij^cd,  and  ll(u-od  Af^rip'pa  soon  after  died  in 
great  misery  from  a  [)airdid  and  loathsome!  diseast!. 

On  the  death  ol'  Herod  Aori|)'p;i,  Jiid(!a  was  once  more  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  a  K'om.iii  pidvinee.  TIk!  criicdty  and  rapacity  of  the 
provincial  f>()veriiors  fdled  llie  land  with  vvri'tchediiess  ;  bands  of  rob- 
bers not  only  inlesLed  llie  roails,  but  even  v<^iitured  Id  attack  tlie  towns; 
certain  ])reten(led  /(iidot.s,  called  Siniiii,  or  assassins,  commilt(Ml  the 
most  iiorrid  nmrders,  in  tlu!  name  ol'  redij^ion  and  liberty;  while  false 
prophei.s  ;ind  misssialis  raised  repeated  insurrections,  which  were  pun- 
ished witii  driiadlul  severity.  All  these  evils  wtsre  aj>-grava,ted  under 
the  administration  of  l''elix,  wIkjscs  avarice;  was  unbounded,  ami  who 
n»!v<!r  hcsitjited  to  commit  any  crime  by  wliicdi  he  might  gratify  his 
dc|)rav(Ml  passions.  Ihdbre  this  wicked  governor  tlu;  apostle  Paul  waa 
brought,  when  f:dsely  :iccused  by  tlu;  Jews  of  disturbing  the  public 
pcact!.  On  the  |)iiblic  lii;d  nothing  could  be  j)roved  against  the  apos- 
tle, but  Felix  detained  him  in  custody.  After  some  time  he  privatcdy 
sent  for  Paul,  to  hear  him  concerning  the  faith  in  ('hrist,  "and  a,s  he 
reasoncnl  of  right(!ousn»!Ss,  temperance,  and  judgnuint  to  coiiK!,  Felix 
trembled,  and  answenul,  (^o  tliy  way  for  this  time;  when  I  have  a 
convenient  season  I  will  call  for  thee.  Me  hoped  also  that  momy 
should  liave  Ix^en  given  him  of  Paul,  th;i,t  he  might  looses  him  ;  where- 
fore 111!  sent  for  him  llu!  (tftener,  and  coimnuned  with  him.  Put  after 
two  years  Por'cius  l'\-s'tus  came  into  Felix's  room  :  and  Felix,  willing 
to  show  the  Jews  a  pleasure;,  left  Paul  bound."  Feis'tiis,  on  assuming 
the  govcirnment,  found  thu  j)riests  at  war  with  each  other  res|)ecting 
their  sharcis  of  the  tithes.  To  such  a  height  did  tludr  rancor  rise,  that 
the  rival  parties  hired  troops  of  assassins,  and  lilled  botli  (;ity  and 
country,  and  even  tlie  veuy  t(!mphi,  with  blood.  Seditions  against  the 
Komans  wmo  also  fresepKMit,  and  the  bands  of  roi)l)(;rs  jihmdered  and 
massacred  everywhere;  witlmut  mercy.  Wliihi  Fes'tus  was  oneleavor- 
ing  te)  pntviele;  semie;  re;me(ly  lor  the-se;  elisenelesrs,  Paul  was  brought 
before  him  for  trial  ;  the;  a,|)e)stle;  e)bse:rving  the  vinelie;tive;  temper  eif  the 
Jews,  and  having  little;  (;e)nliel(!riee;  in  the  firmness  of  Fes'tus,  a])pealed 
to  (ya!sar,  anel  was  eif  e-e)urse;  se;nt  U>  Ueime;. 

Fes'tus  was  succe;e!ele;e*l  by  Albinus,  anel  afte;rwarel  by  Fleirus,  the  last 
and  worrit  govcrne)r  the  Jews  over  had  (a.  d.  (34).  Florus  resolved  to 
drive  the  Jews  into  oj)(;n  re;l)e;llion,  to  prevent  any  inepiiry  into  his 
manifold  oppressions.     'I'he  unhappy  nation  seemed  blinelly  to  second 


HTRTOIJY  OF  TIIK  JEWS.  181 

his  oflTorts  by  taking  up  arms  to  drive  the  Syrians  out  of  Caesarea,  and 
by  raisinj^r  scMlilioiis  in  abnost  every  city  wboro  they  wore  settbul.  At 
lcii<i;tb  the  zcaluts  attacked  tlie  Ivoiiiaiis  in  tlie  (brtnissiis  wliich  l<ad 
been  erected  to  secure  Jerusalem,  and  put  all  wbo  ()ppos(!(l  iIkmii  to 
the  sword,  incliidiiifr  even  tlu!  garrisons  that  caijitulatiid.  TIk;  govismor 
of  Syria  marched  into  Jiidea  to  punish  tlicse  disorders,  but  he  was 
compelbid  to  retreat,  and  the  Jews  now  resolved  to  brave  the  entire 
strength  of  the  empire  (a,  d.  G7).  The  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  re- 
membering our  Savior's  warning,  retired  to  Pel'la,  Ixiyond  tin;  Jordan, 
whither  tin;  war  did  not  r(!ach,  a,nd  tlu^ir  example  was  followed  by 
several  Jews  in  the  higher  classes. 

Vesi);isiaii,  a  Roman  gcmeral,  who  had  already  distinguished  himself 
in  Germany  and  Uritain,  was  appointcul  by  Nero  to  coiiduct  tin;  war 
against  the  Jews.  He  encountered  everywhere  a  fierce  resistance,  anJ 
at  length,  when  he  reached  Caesarea,,  lu;  halted  his  army,  trusting  that 
the  Jews,  by  their  intestine  tunndts,  would  become  so  weakened  as  to 
afford  him  an  easy  victory  (a.  d.  70).  Such  an  expectation  was  but 
too  reasonable ;  the  zealots,  who  had  fled  before  the  Romans,  were 
now  eolloeted  in  Jerusalem,  uiidi^r  the  command  of  a  vile  demagogue, 
John  of  Gis'chala,  and  being  joined  l)y  tlu;  Idumeans,  counnilt<!d  the 
most  horrid  butcheries,  and  polluted  the  temple  itself  with  horrid  mur- 
ders. Another  party  was  formed  Ity  Simon,  the  son  of  Corias,  whose 
atrocities  in  the  country  rivalled  those  of  John  in  the  city  ;  he  was  in- 
vited to  Jerusalem,  as  a  counterpoise  to  John  and  the  zealots,  but  the 
remedy  was  worse  than  the  disease,  for  Simon  proved  the  worse 
scourge  of  the  two.  A  third  faction  was  formed  by  Ehsazar,  who 
seiziMl  the  upper  part  of  the  temple,  and  thus,  while  the  enemies  were 
advancing  against  the  devoted  city,  its  garrison  and  its  citizens  were 
engag(^d  in  mutual  slaughter. 

In  th(!  meantime,  V(!s[);isian,  having  been  raised  to  the  empire  in- 
trusted the  command  of  the  army  to  his  son  Titus,  who  (uitered  Judea 
witli  a  very  numerous  a,nd  well-appointed  army  (a.  n.  73).  He  ad- 
vanced against  Jerusalem,  meeting  no  resistance  in  the  open  country, 
a  circumstance  which  led  him  to  believe  that  the  Jews  had  repented 
of  th(!ir  rebellion,  and  were  preparing  for  submission.  ITuderthis  mis- 
taken impression,  he  exposed  himself  negligently  in  the  dilllcult  defile 
called  tlie  valley  of  Jeliosh'aphat,  wliere  he  was  separated  from  hi.s 
cavalry.  In  this  situation  he  was  suddenly  assailed  by  the  factions 
and  was  exposed  to  sucli  danger  that  his  escape  was  regarded  as  little 
short  of  a  miracle.  'J'he  siege  was  now  formally  commenced  ;  the 
Jews,  shut  up  in  the  city,  sufllcred  dreadfully  from  famine  and  pesti- 
lence, but  the  factions  did  not  lay  asiile  their  mutual  fury  ;  they  con- 
tinvjeil  to  slaughter  each  other,  even  while  their  walls  were  shaken  by 
the  liattering  engines  of  the  Romans.  Language  would  fail  to  describe 
the  horrid  sufl^'erings  of  the  besieged  ;  hunger  reduced  them  to  the  ne- 
cessitv  of  usinir  the  most  revolting  and  unnatural  substances  for  food, 
while  *}>e  zealots  made  the  miseries  and  groans  of  their  starving  breth- 
ren th-^  subject  of  their  cruel  mirth,  and  carried  their  barbarity  even  to 
the  sheathing  their  swords  on  these  poor  wretches,  under  pretence  of 
trying  their  sb-irpness. 

At  lei»iith  t^"  walls  of  the  city  were  battered  down,  and  the  Romans 


182  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

besieged  the  temple,  where  the  desperate  faciions  still  maintained  an 
energetic  resistance.  Titus  was  very  anxious  to  save  the  sacred  ed- 
ifice, but  one  of  his  soldiers  threw  a  lighted  brand  mto  one  of  the  win- 
dows, and  the  whole  building  was  soon  in  flames.  A  fearful  massacre 
followed  ;  the  Romans  refused  all  quarter,  and  many  thousands  perished 
by  the  fire,  the  sword,  or  by  throwing  themselves  headlong  from  the 
battlements.  This  scene  of  butchery  was  continued  for  several  days, 
until  Jerusalem  was  left  utterly  desolate.  The  number  of  prisoners 
reserved  for  a  fate  worse  than  death  amounted  to  ninety-seven  thousand, 
eleven  thousand  of  whom  were  starved  to  death  by  the  neglect  or  cu- 
pidity of  their  keepers.  According  to  Josephus,  there  perished  at  Je- 
rusalem during  the  siege,  by  famine,  pestilence,  and  the  sword,  more 
than  a  million  of  Jews  and  proselytes  ;  but  this  statement  appears  to  be 
exaggerated. 

When  the  soldiers  had  ended  their  destructive  work  of  burning  and 
slaughter,  Titus  ordered  that  the  entire  city  should  b^  razed  to  the 
ground,  with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  the  western  wall,  and  three 
towers,  which  he  left  as  memorials  of  his  conquest.  So  punctu-ally 
were  his  orders  executed,  that,  except  these  few  buildings,  nothing  was 
left  save  shapeless  ruins,  which  would  indicate  that  the  place  had  ever 
been  inhabited.  The  victory  of  Titus  was  celebrated  at  Rome  by  a 
splendid  triumph ;  a  triumphal  arch,  which  still  exists,  was  raised  to 
commemorate  the  event ;  and  a  medal  struck,  in  which  the  captured 
land  of  Judea  was  significantly  represented  as  a  disconsolate  female 
sitting  beneath  a  palm-tree,  while  a  soldier,  standing  by,  laughed  at  her 
misery  and  mocked  at  her  calamity. 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  i-83 


CHAPTER  Xlll. 
HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  ITALY.' 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline 

Italy,  in  its  earliest  signification,  was  the  name  given  to  the  zeioll 
onoue  of  land  between  the  Syllet'ic  and  the  Nepetic  gulfs  that  ia,  the 
southern  portion  of  Brut'tium  ;  but  it  was  gradually  extended  to  include 
more  northern  provinces,  until,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
it  was  applied  to  the  great  peninsula  inchided  between  the  Alps,  the 
Adriatic,  the  Tyrrhenian  and  the  Mediterranean  seas.  It  was  also 
called  Hesperia,  from  its  western  situation ;  Satur'nia,  from  the  fable 
of  Saturn's  flight  thither ;  Aus'onia  and  CEnotria,  from  some  of  the 
most  ancient  tribes  of  inhabitants. 

The  most  convenient  division  of  the  peninsula  is  into  three  portions  : 
Cisalpine  Gaul  in  the  north,  Italy  Proper  in  the  centre,  and  Magna 
Grrecia  in  the  south. 

Subalpine  Italy  received  the  name  of  Gaul  from  the  Gallic  hordes 
that  settled  in  the  northern  and  western  districts  ;  it  was  called  for  dis- 
tinction Cisalpine,  or  Citerior,  because  it  lay  on  the  side  of  the  Alps 
next  to  Rome,  and  Togata,  because  in  a  late  age,  its  inhabitants  began 
to  use  the  toga,  or  national  dress  of  the  Romans.  From  the  Alps,  this 
province  at  first  extended  to  the  city  of  An'cona,  in  the  province  of 
Picenum ;  but,  in  the  later  ages  of  the  Roman  republic,  the  river  Ru- 
bicon {Rugone),  between  Ravenna  and  Arim'inum,  was  considered  the 
limit  of  its  frontiers. 

The  principal  Subalpine  tribes  were  the  Vedian'tii,  inhabiting  the  small 
tract  lying  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Varus  {Var),  and  extending  from 
the  territory  of  Nicse  {Nice),  to  the  Maritime  Alps,  or  that  branch  of 
the  mountain-chain  which  joins  the  Western  Mediterranean :  the  Va- 
geen'ni,  north  of  the  Maritime  Alps  near  the  source  of  the  river  Padus 
{Po) ;  and  the  Taurini,  at  the  other  side  of  the  Padus,  on  which  stood 
their  capital,  Taurasia,  subsequently  called  Augus'ta  Taurinorum 
{Turiii). 

North  of  the  Taur'ini,  and  among  the  mountains,  was  the  kingdom 
of  Cottius,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  Cottian  Alps.  Thence  to  the 
Greek  Alps,  which  extended  to  Mons  Jovis  [Great  St.  Bernard),  there 
were  several  warlike  Gallic  tribes,  but  none  of  any  particular  note  in 
history. 

Ligiiria  lay  south  of  the  river  Padus,  extending  to  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  between  the  rivers  Macra  and  Varus.  Its  chief  cities  on  the  sea- 
coast  were  Nicae'a  {Nice  or  Nizza),  erected  by  the  Massilians  to  pro- 
tect their  frontier  against  the  Ligurian  mountaineers:  Portus  Her'culia 


184  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Monos'ci  {Mo7iaj;o),  Al'6ium  Intemeliiim  (VintimigUa),  Al'bium  Ingan' 
num  (Alhenoia),  Sab'ata  (Savnna),  Gen'ua  or  Jan'ua  (Genoa),  Por'tua 
Delphmi  [Porto  Fino),  and  Por'Uis  Lunae  [Golfu  delle  Spezif).  Of 
these  Gen'ua  was  the  most  important,  being  the  great  emporium  of  Li- 
)^irian  commerce.  The  principal  towns  in  the  interior  were  Pollentia 
•iPoUenza),  As'ta  [Asti),  and  Indus'tria  (Tortona).  This  last  city  was 
'.ailed  Bodcncomagum  by  the  earlier  Ligurians,  because  it  stood  on  the 
f*o,  which  they  named  Boden'cus,  a  word  in  their  language  signifying 
'  bottomless."  Next  to  Liguria  lay  the  district  named  Gallia  Cispa- 
iana,  or  Gaul  south  of  the  Po ;  it  was  chiefly  inhabiiod  by  the  Boii, 
the  Lingones,  and  the  Senones.  The  principal  towns  of  the  Boii  were 
Placentia,  Par'ma,  Mutina  (Modena),  and  Bononia  (Bulogna).  The  Lin- 
gones possessed  Raven'na,  Faven'tia  (Farnza),  Solona  [CUta  di  Sole), 
and  Cae'sena  ;  and  to  the  Senones  belonged  Arimin'um  [Rimini),  Pisaii- 
rum  [Pcsaro),  Sena  Gal'lica  [Sinignglia),  and  An'cona. 

Gal'lia  Transpadana,  or  north  of  the  Padus,  had  the  great  Alpine 
chain  on  the  north  and  west,  between  which  and  the  Po  it  extended  to 
the  river  Formio  (//  Risano),  which  separated  it  from  Istria.  It  was 
inhal^ted  by  the  Orobii,  the  Li'subres,  the  Lae'vi,  the  Cenoman'ni,  the 
Eugariei,  and  the  Ven'eti.  The  principal  cities  in  the  territory  of  the 
Orobii  were  Con'rum  [Conro),  Ber'gamum  [Bergamo),  and  Forum  Li- 
cin'ii  [Berlasina)  ;  the  In'subres  possessed  Mediolanum  [Milan),  Laus 
Pompeii  [Loili),  and  Forum  hituatorum  [Cre/na) :  to  the  Cenoman'ni 
belonged  Brix'ia  [Brescia),  Cremona,  Man'tua,  and  Ver'ona :  the  Eu- 
ganei,  owned  Sabium,  Vobern'a,  Ed'rum,  and  Van'nia,  cities  long  since 
demolished :  and  the  Ven'eti  were  masters  of  Patavium  [Padua),  Vi- 
cen'tia  [Vicenza),  Ates'te  [Este),  Forum  AUieni  [Ferrara],  Tar'visum 
[Trcviso),  Aquileia  [Aquilea),  Forum  Jiilii  [Friuli),  and  Tergeste  [Tri- 
este). In  later  ages,  a  horde,  called  the  Garni,  wrested  from  the  Ven'- 
eti the  cities  and  country  between  the  rivers  For'mio  and  Talaven'tura 
(Piave). 

Central  or  Proper  Italy  extended  along  the  Adriatic  coast  from  the 
city  of  An'cona  to  the  river  Fren'to  [Forlore),  and  on  the  Mcdiierraneau 
side  was  limited  by  the  rivers  Macra  and  Sil'arus  [Sele).  It  compre- 
hended Etriiria,  Um'bria,  Sabin'ium,  Latium,  Picenum,  with  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Vestini,  Marrucini,  Pelig'ni,  Mar'si,  Frent'ani,  Samnites, 
Hirpini,  Campani,  and  Picentini. 

Etruria  was  inhabited  by  two  distinct  races,  that  seem  tu  have  very 
slowly  amalgan/  ited,  the  Tyrrheni  and  the  Hetrus'ci.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  east  by  tne  river  Tiber,  on  the  west  by  the  Macra,  on  the  north 
by  the  chain  of  the  Apennines,  and  on  the  south  by  that  portion  of  the 
Mediterranean  commonly  called  the  Tuscan  sea.  It  was  divided  into 
a  dodecarchy,  or  government  of  twelve  tribes  and  cities.  These  ruling 
cities  in  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Etrurian  history  were,  Volsin'ii 
[Bolsena),  Clusium  [Ckiusi),  Periisia  [Perugia],  Cortona,  Aret'ium 
[Arezzo),  Falerii  [Civita  Castellana),  Volater'rae  [Volterra),  Vetulonium 
[Grosseto),  Rusel'lae  [Cerveteri),  and  the  cities  of  Veil,  Tarquinii,  and 
Cae're,  which  at  present  lie  in  ruins.  There  were  many  other  places 
of  importance  in  Etruria:  on  the  seacoast  were  Lima  [UErice),  Pisee 
[Pisa),  Por'tus  Her'culis  Libur'ni  (Livorno  or  Leghorn),  Papulonia  now 
\n    ruins,    Tal'amon    (Telamone),  Centumcel'lae  [Civita   Vecchia),    and 


ANCIEN  r  ITALY.  i85 

Al'sium  (Pah).  There  were  besides,  in  the  interior,  Nep'ete  [Nepe), 
Sutrium  [SiUn^,  Fanum  VoUiim'na?  ( F"?7e?/>o),  Hortanuiu  (Or/?),  Ker- 
banura  (Orniptu),  Senae  JuUte  {Saona),  Floren'tia  (Fioraiza,  Fircme,  or 
Florence),  Pistoria  (Pistoia),  and  Luca  (Lucca). 

IJmbria  was  hounded  on  the  south  by  the  river  Nar  {Nrra),  on  the 
north  by  the  Adriatic  sea,  on  the  east  by  the  iEsis  [Finmictno),  and  on 
the  west  partly  by  the  Tiber,  and  partly  by  the  Bedesis  (//  Roneo),  which 
falls  into  the  Adriatic  near  Ravenna.  But  the  maritime  part  of  Umbria 
having  been  early  conquered  by  the  Senonian  Gauls,  the  cities  it  con- 
tains have  been  already  mentioned  in  the  account  of  Gallia  Cispadana. 
The  Umbrian  cities  on  the  Adriatic  side  of  the  Apennines  were  Sarshia, 
Urbinum  (Urbino),  Metauren'se  (Castd  Durantt:),  Sentiiium  (Sfutiino), 
and  Cam'ers  [Cainfrino).  On  the  other  side  of  these  mountains  were 
Iguvium  (UiTubio),  Mevania  [Bagagna),  Spolet'ium  {Spoleti),  Tifer'num 
(Cilia  di  Castel/a),  Nuceria  [Noccra),  Assis'ium  (Assisi),  Hispellum 
(Ispvllo),  Fulgin'ium  (Foligno),  Intcram'nium  (Terni),  Nariiia  (Narni), 
and  Ocric'ulum  (Ociicoli). 

The  territory  of  the  Sabines  lay  between  the  Nar,  which  divided  it 
from  Umbria,  and  the  A'nio  (Tevcwne),  by  v/hich  it  was  separated 
from  Latium.  It  contained  the  city  of  Cures,  whose  inhabitants,  migra- 
ting to  Rome,  are  said  to  have  given  its  citizens  the  name  of  Quirites  ; 
Reate  (Rudi),  Nur'sia  (Norcia),  E'retum  [Monte  Rolondo),  and  Amiter'- 
num  [Lamenlariu). 

'  Latium  was  at  first  restricted  within  very  narrow  limits,  being  boimd- 
ed  by  the  Tiber,  the  A'nio  (Teverone),  and  the  Circaean  promontory 
{Monte  CercilU)  ;  but  after  the  subjugation  of  the  vE'qui,  Hernici,  Vol'sci, 
and  Ausones,  it  was  extended  to  the  Liris  (Garigliano) ;  and  hence 
arises  the  distinction  between  Old  and  New  Latium.  The  chief  cities 
of  Old  Latium  were  Rome,  Tibur  (TivoU),  Prsenes'te  (Pahslnna),  Tus'- 
culum  (Frascati),  Aric'ia,  Lanuvium  (Cilta  Lavina),  Al'ba  Lon'ga 
(Albano),  Lauren'tum  (Paterno),  and  Os'tia.  There  were,  besides,  four 
Latin  towns,  of  which  the  ruins  can  now  scarcely  be  traced,  Gabii, 
Antem'nse,  Collatia,  and  Ar'dea.  The  chief  cities  of  the  yEqui  were 
Car'sula  (Arsuli),  Valeria  (Vico  Varo),  Sublaqueum  (Suhiaco),  and 
Al'gidum,  now  in  ruins.  To  the  Hernici  belonged  Anag'nia  {Anag7ii), 
Alatrium  [Ahitn),  Ver'ulse  (Veroli),  and  Ferentinum  [Ferentino).  In 
the  ^ountry  of  the  Volsci  were  An'tium,  Cir'ca3,  and  Sues'sa  Pometia, 
all  three  long  since  ruined  ;  Anx'ur  (Terr«cwa),  Vel'itrse  (Veletri),  Pri- 
ver'num  [Piperno),  Aquinum  {Aquino),  Casinum  {Monte  Cas.sino), 
Arpinum  {Aipino),  Fregel'lae  (Ponte  Corvo),  and  Interam'na  (Ulsola). 
The  Ausones  possessed  Careto  (Gaeta),  Fun'di  (Fondi),  and  For'mias 
{Mola). 

Picenum  extended  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Apennines,  between  the 
^'sis  (Esino)  and  the  Aternus  {Pescara).  The  chief  cities  of  the 
Picen'tes  were  Aticona,  As'culvim  (Ascoli),  Intcram'nium  (Teramo), 
and  A/tria  (Atri).  Several  other  nations  besides  the  Picen'tes  wore 
included  within  the  boundaries  of  Picenum.  Of  these,  the  Vestini 
possessed  Au'gulus"(C/t;«7a  di  S undo  Angela)  and  Avel'la ;  the  Mar- 
rucini  owned  but  one  city,  Teate  {Chiete)  ;  the  Peligni  possessed  Cor- 
fin'ium,  now  in  ruins,  and  SuFmo  (Sulmona)  ;  the  Mar'si,  in  the  inlerioi 
of  the  country,  close  to  the  Apennines,  had  only  one  important  town 


186 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Marrubiiim  (Morrea).  On  the  southern  seacoasi  were  the  Frentanl 
whose  chief  cities  were  Ortuna,  Anax'onum  [Lanzano),  and  Histonium 
[Guasto  frAmonc)  :  the  Samnites  possessed  the  country  between  the 
territory  of  the  Frentani  and  the  Apennines  ;  their  chief  cities  were 
Bovianum  (Boiano),  ^Eser'nia  (hernia'),  Sepinum  (S/'phui),  AliifsB 
[Alifi),  and  Tel'esia  (Telesi).  Finally,  the  Hirpini  held  the  south 
western  side  of  the  Apennines,  and  possessed  Beneven'tum  [BeneveiUo) 
Equotuticum  [Ariano),  and  Comp'sa  [Conza). 

Campania,  the  most  pleasant  and  fruitful  division  of  Italy,  extended 
between  the  territories  of  the  Samnites  and  Herpini  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean from  the  river  Liris  to  the  promontry  of  Minerva.  On  its  coast 
were  Liter'num  {Torre  di  Patria),  Baiae  {Baia),  Misenum  {Muyite 
Miseno),  Parthen'ope  or  Neap'olis  (Naples),  and  Sorren'tiuni  (Sarrmto), 
together  with  the  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pom'peii,  overwhelmed  by 
an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  In  the  interior  of  the  country  were 
Capua,  Sues'sa  Aurun'ca  [Sessa),  Venafrum  {Venafro),  Casilinum 
(Nova  Capua),  Teanum  Sidicinum  {Tiano),  Calatia  (Cajazzo),  Cales 
{Calvi),  Atel'la  {Aversa),  Acer'rsE  {Acerra),  Nola  and  Nuceria  (Nocera) 
Between  the  promontory  of  Minerva  and  the  river  Sil'arus  (Sc/e)  was 
a  small  district  inhabited  by  a  Picentine  colony,  whose  chief  city  was 
Saler'num  {Salerno). 

Magna  Graecia,  so  called  from  the  number  of  Greek  colonies  that 
settled  in  it,  comprised  Apulia,  Lucania,  and  the  territory  of  the  Brut'tii. 

Apulia  {La  PugUa)  extended  from  the  river  Fren'to  (Foriore)  to  the 
Japygian  promontory  (Capo  di  Leiica),  at  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
Italy.  It  was  divided  into  three  portions :  Daunia,  lying  between  the 
Freu'to  and  the  Aufidus  (Ofanlo) ;  Peucetia,  stretching  from  the  Auiidus 
to  the  isthnuis  between  Brundusium  and  Taren'tum  ;  and  Japy'gia,  or 
Calabria,  comprising  the  sontheastern  peninsula  of  Italy,  or  the  heel  of 
the  boot  to  which  Italy  ha,s  been  fancifully  compared. 

In  the  first  two  divisions  were  Teanum  Ap'ulum  (Civitate  Tragonara), 
Sipuntum  {Siponto)  Liiceria  (Lucera),  Ar'pi  {Foggia)  As'culum  Ap'u- 
lum  (Asicli),  Venusia  (Venosa),  Acheron'tia  {Acirenza),  Camisium 
(Canosa),  Can'ngs  (C(/?nm),  Salapia  (»SaZ/)e),  Barium  (Ban),  and  Egnatia 
[Terra  WAnazzo).  The  chief  cities  of  Calabria  were  Brundusium 
(Brindisi),  Hydruntum  (Olranto),  Callip'ohs  {Gallipoli),  Ner'itum 
{Nardo),  and  Aletium  (Lezze). 

Lucania  lay  between  the  Silanis  and  the  Laiis  {Laino).  It  was 
divided  from  Peucetia  by  the  Bran'danus  {Brandano),  and  from  Calabria 
by  the  upper  part  of  the  Tarentine  gulf.  On  the  Mediterranean,  or 
Tyrrhenian  sea,  stood  Pees'tum  or  Posidonia  {Peslo),  Velia  {Pisciotta), 
and  Buxen'tum  {Policastro).  On  the  Tarentine  gulf  were  Metapon'tum 
{Tere  di  Mare)  and  Heraclea,  called  also  Syb'aris  and  Thurii  (Policore). 
The  inland  cities  were  Poten'tia  (Potenza),  and  Grumen'tum  {Clari' 
monlr). 

Greek  colonies  occupied  the  southwestern  peninsula  of  Italy.  Theii 
chief  cities  on  the  western  coast  were  Ceril'li  (Cirella),  Clamp'etia 
{Amantta),  Tom'sa  (Torre  Loppa),  Lametia  {Sanf.  Euphemia),  Scyllae'- 
um  (Sciglia),  and  Rhegium  {Reggio).  On  the  eastern  coast  stood  Locri 
Epizephy'rii  {Jeraces),  Caulonia  (Castel  Veteri),  Scyhceum  {SquiUaci), 
Croto    (Crontone),    Petil'ia   (Belicastro),   and    Ruscianum    {Rossana). 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  1^7 

The  chief  cities  of  the  interior  were  Consen'tij,  (Cnsenza)  and  Hip* 
poninm,  called  by  the  Romans  Vibo  Valen'tia  [Monte  Leone.) 

The  chief  Italian  mountains  are  the  Alps,  which  extend  round  the 
north  of  the  peninsula  in  an  irregular  chain  about  eight  hundred  miles 
in  length ;  and  the  Apennines,  which  go  through  Italy  from  the  Mari- 
time Alps  to  the  straits  of  Sicily.  The  Massic,  Gaurian,  and  Garganian 
mountains  are  detached  ridges,  celebrated  for  theiy  fertility ;  and  Vesu- 
vius, near  Naples,  has  been  long  remarkable  for  its  volcano. 

From  the  Alps  flow  the  Padus  [Po),  the  Druria  (Dora),  the  Sessites 
(Ses.sia),  the  Ticinus  (Tessino),  the  Ad'dua  [Adda),  the  Ol'lius  {0<{/i(>), 
the  Min'crus  (Mincio),  the  Tan'arus  [Tanaro),  the  Trebia,  and  the 
Rhenus  Bononien'sis  [Reno  di  Bulogiw)  :  all  these  are  tributaries  of  the 
Padus.  The  Ath'esis  (Adige)  has  also  its  source  in  the  Alps,  but  it 
falls  into  the  Adriatic.  The  Ar'nus  {Arno)  and  the  Tiber  flow  from  the 
Apennines  into  the  Mediterranean  :  the  tributaries  of  the  latter  river  are 
the  Clanis  (Chiana),  the  Nar  [Ncra),  and  the  A'nio  {Teverone).  Be- 
sides these,  there  are  the  Liris  [Garigliano),  separating  Laiium  from 
Campania;  the  Vultur'nus  {Voltorno),  in  Campania;  the  Sil'arus 
(Silaro),  severing  the  territories  of  the  Pincentini  and  Lucani ;  the 
Syb'aris  (Cockile),  and  the  Crathis  (C rati),  in  Lucania ;  the  Aufldus 
(Ofanto),  in  Apulia  ;  and  the  Ater'nus  [Pescara)  and  Metaurus  (Metauro), 
in  Picenum. 

Italy  has  ever  been  celebrated  for  its  fertility  and  beauty ;  its  inhab- 
itants were  once  the  triumphant  conquerors  and  lords  of  the  known 
world  ;  but  ages  of  misgovernment  have  blighted  this  lovely  peninsula, 
and  it  is  now  among  the  most  degrad*^  1  and  miserable  countries  in  Eu- 
rope. 

Skction  II. — Historical  Notices  of  the  early  Inhabitants  of  Italy 

CHRONOLOGY    UNCERTAIN. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Italy  appear  to  have  been  branches  of 
the  great  Pelasgic  nation.  Of  these,  the  (Enotrians  occupied  the  soutu 
of  the  peninsula,  the  Sicilians  possessed  the  plain  of  the  Tibe-,  anJ  the 
r^Trhenians  were  settled  in  Etruria.  In  process  of  time,  the  CLno- 
irians  were  subjugated  by  Hellenic  colonies,  the  Sicilians  subdued  by 
some  mountain-tribes  who  took  the  name  of  Latins,  and  the  Tyrrheni- 
ans conquered  by  the  Hetrusci,  a  people  that  probably  descended  from 
ihe  Rhaetian  Alps. 

Between  (Enot'ria  and  Tyrrhenia  was  the  territory  of  the  Opicans 
or  Oscans,  called  also  Ausonians.  Their  language  was  intelligible  to 
the  Latins ;  for  the  Latin  tongue  is  compounded  of  Greek  and  Oscan. 
To  this  race  the  M'qui  and  Vol'sci  appear  to  have  belonged. 

The  Latins,  according  to  tradition,  were  driven  down  the  A'nio  by 
the  Sabines,  and  they  in  their  turn  expelled  a  great  portion  of  the  Si- 
culians  from  their  habitations,  who  proceeded  southward,  and  parsed 
over  the  strait  of  Messina  into  the  island  which  took  from  them  the 
name  of  Sicily.  In  the  old  legends  these  Latin  conquerors  are  called 
Sacrani ;  they  were  also  named  Priscans  and  Cascans.  From  the  lat- 
ter name,  and  the  similarity  of  language,  they  must  have  been  a  branch 


188  ANQIENT  HISTORY. 

of  the  Oscan  nation.  The  agreement  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
lansfuasres  in  words  that  relate  to  agriculture  and  .he  arts  of  social  life, 
while  they  diffei  wholly  in  the  names  of  objects  belonging  to  war  or 
the  chase,  is  a  strong  proof  that  the  agricultural  laborers  or  serfs  were 
of  Pelasgian  origin,  and  the  warriors  a  superior  caste  of  Oscan  de- 
scent. Little  is  known  of  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Latins,  or  the 
deities  they  worshipped.  Janus,  or  Dianus,  was  the  god  of  the  sun, 
Saturn  the  vivifying  power  of  nature,  and  his  wife  Ops  the  productive 
energy  of  the  earth ;  but  the  distinctive  character  of  these  deities  was 
lost  when,  in  a  late  age,  the  native  legends  of  Latium  were  blended 
and  confounded  with  the  mythology  of  Greece. 

The  Sabines  and  their  cognate  tribes  are  included  under  the  common 
name  of  Sabellians ;  they  were  the  most  widely  extended  and  the 
greatest  people  in  Italy  when  the  Romans  advanced  beyond  the  fron- 
tiers of  Latium.  Their  original  home  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ami- 
ter'nium,  among  the  highest  of  the  Apennines  that  are  now  included  in 
Abruzzo  Ultra.  From  these  they  descended  at  a  very  remote  age,  dri- 
ving the  Cascans  before  them  in  one  direction,  and  the  Umbrians  in 
another.  Their  colonies  were  sent  out  according  to  a  singular  religious 
institution  called  the  "  Ver  Sacrum,"  or  sacred  spring.  Every  twenty 
years  the  children  and  cattle  born  within  the  twelvemonth  were  conse- 
crated and  set  apart  for  founding  a  colony  ;  and,  as  soon  as  they  reached 
mature  age,  were  sent  forth  for  the  purpose.  One  of  these  occupied 
Picenum,  then  inhabited  by  the  Pelasgians ;  another  passed  into  the 
land  of  the  Opicans,  or  Oscans,  and  became  the  founders  of  the  great 
Samnite  race.  To  the  Sabellan  race  belonged  also  the  Frentanians  on 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  the  tribes  that  conquered  Campania,  the  pow- 
erful nation  of  the  Lucanians,  and  the  four  confederate  tribes  of  Mar- 
sians,  Manucinians,  Pelignians,  and  Vestinians.  The  Hernicans  wei^e 
a  sub-colony  of  the  Marsians. 

The  Lucanians,  pushing  their  conquests  into  ffinotria,  were  soon  in 
volved  in  war  with  the  Greek  colonies,  most  of  which  they  subdued. 
They  were  joined  by  the  Samnites  from  Campania  (b.  c.  437),  who 
gained  possession  of  Vultur'num.  They  soon  advanced  to  the  Laiis 
(b.  c.  423),  and  confirmed  their  power  by  the  total  defeat  of  the  Thu- 
rians  (b.  c.  387).  At  length  they  were  brought  into  hostile  contact 
with  the  Romans,  and  soon  stripped  of  all  their  power. 

The  Sabellian  tribes,  more  esj>ecially  those  in  the  north,  were  dis- 
tinguished for  their  love  of  divination,  the  rigid  severity  of  their  mor- 
als, and  their  cheerful  contentedness.  In  ether  respects  their  charac- 
ters differed.  The  Sabines  and  most  of  the  northern  tribes  lived  in 
open  villages ;  the  Samnites  fortified  the  hills  on  which  they  dwelt ; 
and  the  Lucanians  became  attached  to  residence  in  cities.  The  want 
of  union  between  the  Sabellian  tribes  prevented  that  race  from  becom- 
ing predominant  in  Italy.  The  Samnites  owed  their  downfall  to  the 
want  of  a  central  metropolis,  and  the  unity  it  confers.  It  was  only  in 
time  of  war  that  they  elected  a  commander-in-chief,  called  emberator ; 
a  term  which  the  Latins  borrowed,  and  changed  into  imperator,  using  it 
instead  of  their  old  words  dictator  and  praztor. 

The  Etrurians  or  Etruscans,  who  conquered  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgi, 
were  called  in  their  own  tongue  "  Rasena :"  they  established  a  kind  of 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  -89 

feudal  supremacy  over  the  subjugated  nation,  aT:c3  deprived  the  Tyr 
rhenians  of  all  political  privileges.  All  public  arfairs  were  decided  in 
the  general  council  of  the  Lucumones,  a  sacer-'otnl  c?ste  whose  privi- 
leges descended  by  inheritance.  From  the  w&,nt  of  a  fre*;  and  respec- 
table commonwealth,  the  Etruscans,  though  possessed  of  preat  wealth 
and  power,  having  been  at  one  time  masters  of  the  commerce  and  nav- 
igation of  the  western  Mediterranean,  proved  unequal  to  cope  with  the 
Romans,  whose  infantry  was  composed  of  free  citizens.  The  regal 
office  was  not  hereditary,  but  elective,  and  the  power  of  the  kings  was 
very  limited.  Before  the  conquest  the  Tyrrhenians  were  remarkable 
for  their  piracies,  and  the  Etruscans  followed  the  same  course.  Their 
corsairs  were  the  terror  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  until  their  navy 
was  almost  annihilated,  in  a  sea-fight  off  Cumae,  by  Hiero,  king  of  Syra- 
cuse. About  two  centuries  afterward,  they  partially  recovered  their 
power,  and  extended  their  piracies  even  into  the  ^Egean  sea ;  but  they 
were  finally  subdued  by  the  Rhodians. 

The  Etruscans  had  made  great  advances  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 
The  ruins  of  their  public  works  rival  those  of  ancient  Egypt  in  magni- 
tude, and  surpass  them  in  utility,  especially  the  dikes  for  fencing  the 
deUa  of  the  Po,  and  the  tunnels  for  draining  the  lakes  that  formed  in 
the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes.  Their  pottery  and  metal  works,  if 
not  of  Greek  origin,  were  certainly  improved  by  Grecian  artisans,  and 
may  therefore  be" attributed  to  the  Pelasgic  Tyrrhenians.  No  Italian 
nation  was  so  religious,  or  rather  superstitious,  as  the  Etrurians  :  from 
them  the  Romans  borrowed  most  of  their  ritual  and  ceremonies,  the 
rules  of  augury  and  divination,  and  the  solemnities  in  the  declaration  of 
peace  or  war.  At  a  very  early  age  Greek  literature  supplanted  the  na- 
tive literature  of  Etruria,  and  the  ancient  lore  of  the  Tuscans  fell  into 
what  seems  to  have  been  unmerited  oblivion. 

The  Umbrians  were  a  nation  consisting  of  several  distinct  races,  the 
most  remarkable  being  the  Camer'tes  and  the  Sarsinates.  Their  lan- 
guage appears  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Etrurian  and  Oscan.  It  is 
the  misfortune  of  the  Umbrians  that  their  greatness  had  disappeared 
before  the  age  of  certain  history ;  their  glory  seems  to  have  passed 
away  when  the  rich  countries  bordering  on  the  seacoast  were  occupied 
by  the  Gauls. 

The  southeast  of  Italy,  or  Japy'gia,  was  occupied  by  the  Messapians, 
the  Peucetians,  and  the  Daunians.  The  Messapians  are  said  to  ha-^e 
been  an  old  Pelasgian  colony  from  Crete  ;  they  were  a  very  powerful 
people  until  the  city  of  Tarentum  had  acquired  sufficient  strength  to 
contend  for  the  supremacy  of  southern  Italy,  when,  after  a  tedious 
struggle,  they  were  compelled  to  enter  into  an  alliance  of  inferiority 
with  the  Tarentines. 

The  Peucetians  appear  to  have  been  a  Libumian  colony  from  Illyrla ; 
the  Daunians,  a  Pelasgic  colony  from  ^Etolia.  The  latter  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Apulians,  an  Oscan  horde,  and  their  name  was  lost  in  that 
of  their  conquerors.  The  language  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of 
Italy  called  Japy'gia  was  Greek. 

The  Ligurians  and  Venetians  appear  to  have  been  branches  of  the 
great  Libumian  nation,  which  at  one  time  possessed  both  sides  of  the 
northern  Adriatic.     The  former  were  a  brave,  warlike  people  ;  for  more 


190  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

than  forty  years  they  resisted  the  Roman  arms,  and  it  is  perhaps  on  this 
account  that  they  are  stigmatized  as  liars  and  deceivers  by  classical  wri 
ters.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Venetians  submitted  without  a  struggle; 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  evils  they  had  suffered  from  the  invasion 
made  them  anxious  to  obtain  the  protection  of  some  powerful  state 

Section  III. —  The  Greek  Colonies  in  Italy. 
FROM  B.  c.   1030  TO  r,.  c.  277. 

The  earliest  Greek  settlement  in  Italy,  of  which  we  have  any  cer- 
tain historical  information,  came  from  Chalcis  in  the  island  of  Euboea, 
and  settled  at  Cumee  (b.  c.  1030).  This  city  soon  attained  a  high  de- 
gree of  prosperity,  established  a  powerful  navy,  and  founded  flourishing 
colonies,  of  which  Neap'olis  and  Zan'cle  (afterward  called  Messana) 
were  the  cliief.  Its  form  of  government  was  aristocratic  ;  but  this  con- 
stitution was  subverted  (b.  c.  544)  by  the  tyrant  Aristodemus.  Free- 
dom was  restored  after  his  assassination ;  but  the  Cumans,  weakened 
by  internal  dissensions,  suffered  severely  in  a  war  with  the  Eretrians 
and  Daunians  (b.  c.  500),  and  were  finally  subdued  by  the  Cxmpanians. 
Cumae  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  dominions  (b.  c.  345)  ;  but  in  con- 
sequence of  its  harbor  at  Puteoli,  it  retained  a  considerable  share  of  its 
importance  even  after  the  loss  of  its  independence. 

Tarentum  was  founded  by  the  Parthenii  from  Spar'ta,  under  Phalan'- 
tus  (b.  c.  707),  as  has  been  already  mentioned.  The  colonists  had  to 
maintain  long  wars  against  the  Italian  tribes  in  their  neighborhood, 
especially  the  Messapians  and  Lucanians  ;  but  they  prevailed  over 
these  uncivilized  barbarians,  and  made  their  city  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing maritime  states  in  western  Europe.  Luxury,  however,  finally 
brought  effeminacy  and  weakness.  To  escape  from  fhe  grasping  am- 
bition of  the  Romans,  the  Tarentines  invited  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus, 
into  Italy ;  but  after  the  departure  of  that  monarch,  the  city  became  de- 
pendant on  Rome  (b.  c.  274). 

Croton  was  founded  by  the  Achasans  (b.  c.  710).  Even  in  the  first 
century  of  its  existence  the  city  attained  such  power  as  to  be  able  to 
raise  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men.  The  consti 
tution  was  in  a  great  degree  democratic,  and  continued  so  until  the 
philosopher  Pythag'oras  came  to  reside  in  Croton  (b.  c.  540).  He 
established  a  secret  association  among  his  disciples,  the  chief  object 
of  which  was  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  political  power  to  the  members 
of  the  Pythagorean  society.  In  a  iew  years  three  hundred  men,  all 
Pythagoreans,  held  the  sovereignty  of  Croton  ;  and  the  influence  of  the 
new  sect  was  established  not  only  in  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy  and 
Sicily,  but  over  a  great  part  of  ancient  Greece  and  the  islands  of  the 
.^gean.  The  Crotonians  soon  after  engaged  in  war  with  the  Sybarites, 
and  destroyed  their  city.  Success  proved  ruinous ;  the  inferior  ranks 
of  men  in  Crotona,  intoxicated  with  prosperity,  and  instigated  by  the 
artful  and  ambitious  Cy'lon,  whose  turbulent  manners  had  excluded  him 
from  the  order  of  Pythag'oras,  into  which  he  had  repeatedly  attempted 
to  enter,  became  clamorous  for  an  equal  partition  of  the  conquered  ter- 
ritory of  Syb'aris,  which  being  denied,  as  inconsistent  with  the  nature 
of  the  oligarchy  established  by  the  Pythagoreans,  they  secretly  con- 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  191 

gpired  against  tlieir  magistrates,  attacked  them  by  surprise  in  the  senate- 
house,  put  many  to  death,  and  drove  the  rest  from  their  country.  Py- 
thag'oras  himself  died  soon  afterward  at  Metapon'tum,  in  Lucania,  hav- 
ing lived  just  long  enough  to  witness  the  ruin  of  the  structure  he  had 
labored  so  anxiously  to  raise.  Croton  never  perfectly  recovered  from 
the  fatal  effects  of  this  civil  war ;  it  was  repeatedly  captured  by  the 
kings  of  Syracuse  ;  and  after  the  departure  of  Pyr'rhus  from  Italy,  it 
became  dependant  on  Rome. 

Syl)'aris  was  founded  by  an  Achaean  colony  (b.  c.  720).  The  ex- 
treme fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  generous  admission  of  all  strangers 
to  the  right  of  citizenship,  caused  the  populati(5n  to  increase  so  rapidly, 
that,  in  a  war  against  the  Crotonians,  the  Sybarites  are  said  to  have 
brought  three  hundred  thousand  men  into  the  field.  Its  vast  wealth,  de- 
rived chiefly  from  an  extensive  trade  in  wine  and  oil  with  northern 
Africa  and  Gaul,  rendered  it  the  most  extensive,  populous,  and  luxurious 
city  in  Europe  from  about  b.  c.  600  to  b.  c  550  ;  so  that  the  debauchery 
and  effeminacy  of  the  Sybarites  became  proverbial.  Disputes  arose  be- 
tween the  aristocratic  and  democratic  factions,  which  led  to  a  civil  war. 
At  length,  Telys,  the  leader  of  the  multitude,  obtained  possession  of  the 
supreme  power,  and  expelled  five  hundred  of  the  principal  nobles,  who 
fled  for  refuge  to  Croto'na.  The  Sybarites  sent  to  demand  these  refu- 
gees, and,  meeting  with  a  refusal,  put  to  death  the  Crotonian  ambas- 
sadors. Such  an  outrage  naturally  led  to  a  war  between  the  two 
cities  (b.  c.  510).  With  far  inferior  forces  the  Crotonians  defeated  the 
Sybarites  in  the  field,  took  their  city  by  storm,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground. 

The  Sybarites,  driven  from  their  habitations,  besought  the  Lacedai- 
monians  and  the  Athenians  to  restore  them,  requesting  them,  at  the  same 
time,  to  send  a  colony  to  share  in  the  new  city  they  had  resolved  to 
build.  The  ambassadors  were  rejected  at  Spar'ta ;  but  the  Athenians, 
who  delighted  in  such  applications,  cheerfully  granted  their  aid  (b.  c. 
446).  A  squadron  of  ten  ships,  having  a  considerable  number  of  troops 
on  board,  was  sent  to  Italy,  under  the  command  of  Lam'po  and  Xenoc'- 
rates  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  proclamation  was  made  throughout  Greece, 
that  all  persons  willing  to  emigrate  to  the  new  colony  should  receive  the 
protection  of  the  Athenian  fleet.  Great  numbers  availed  themselves  of 
the  proposition,  and  the  Sybarites,  aided  by  the  new  settlers,  soon  re- 
covered their  former  possessions,  and  founded  Thiirium,  near  the  site  of 
their  ancient  city.  Peace  did  not  long  inhabit  these  new  dwellings  ; 
the  inhabitants,  coming  from  so  many  various  quarters,  could  not  for- 
get their  old  animosities,  and  began  to  dispute  which  section  among 
them  could  claim  to  rank  as  founders  of  ttie  city.  An  appeal  was  made 
to  the  Delphic  oracle  (b.  c.  433)  :  the  priests  of  that  temple  declared 
the  city  to  be  a  colony  of  Apol'lo.  But  this  did  not  put  an  end  to  dis- 
cord ;  the  Sybarites,  believing  that  they  had  the  best  right  to  thtir  own 
country,  began  to  exclude  the  foreign  colonists,  who  were  by  far  the 
majority,  from  all  honors  and  employments ;  this  provoked  a  civil  war, 
which  ended  in  a  second  expulsion  of  the  Sybarite  families.  The  Thu' 
rians  then  invited  fresh  colonists  from  Greece,  and  formed  themselvea 
into  a  commor  vealth,  choosing  Charon'das,  of  Cat'ana,  for  their  legis- 
lator. They  .'-■  >n  sunk  under  the  enerv^ating  effects  of  luxur)',  and, 
being  unable  to  defend  themselves  against  the  Lucanians,  placed  them- 


192  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

selves  under  tlie  protection  of  the  Romans.  Tins  affoided  the  Taren« 
tines  an  excuse  for  attacking  the  city,  of  which  they  made  themselves 
masters,  and  thus  brought  upon  themselves  the  vengeance  of  Rome. 
At  the  close  of  the  Tarentine  war,  Thurium  became  a  Roman  depend- 
ancy.  It  suffered  very  severely  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and,  having 
been  almost  depopulated,  was  occupied  by  a  Roman  colony  (b.  c.  190). 

The  city  of  Locri  Epizephy'rii  was  inhabited  by  the  people  of  the 
same  name.  The  original  colonists  were  sent  out  by  the  Locri  O'zolse 
(b.  c.  683) ;  but  these  were  joined  by  a  great  variety  of  settlers,  chiefly 
from  vvestern  Greece.  Zaleucus,  one  of  their  own  citizens,  became  the 
le'rislator  of  the  Locrians,  and  his  wise  institutions  remained  unchanged 
for  nearly  two  centuries.  The  constitution  appears  to  have  been  a  ju- 
dicious mixture  of  aristocracy  and  democracy.  The  Locrians  contin- 
ued to  be  honorably  distinguished  by  their  peaceful  condition,  quiet 
conduct,  and  good  manners,  until  Diony'sius  IL,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
having  been  expelled  by  his  subjects,  sought  refuge  in  Locri,  which 
was  the  native  country  of  his  mother  (b.  c.  357).  His  insolence,  his 
licentiousness,  and  the  excesses  of  his  followers,  brought  the  state  to  the 
verge  of  ruin ;  and,  when  he  returned  to  Syracuse  (b.  c,  347),  the  Lo- 
crians revenged  their  wrongs  on  his  unfortunate  family.  When  Pyr'rhus 
invaded  Italy,  he  placed  a  garrison  in  Locri  (b.  c.  277)  ;  but  the  Lo- 
crians rose  in  revolt,  and  put  the  intruders  to  the  sword.  The  king  of 
Epirus,  in  revenge,  stormed  and  plundered  the  city.  After  his  return 
home,  it  submitted  to  the  Romans,  and  was  one  of  the  places  that  suf- 
fered most  severely  in  the  second  Punic  war. 

Rhegium  was  colonized  jointly  by  the  Chalcidians  and  Messenians 
(b.  c.  668) ;  but  the  chief  power  was  possessed  by  the  Messenian  aris- 
tocracy. This  oligarchy  was  subverted  by  Anaxilaus  (b.  c.  494),  and 
an  absolute  despotism  established.  After  some  time  the  Rhegians  re- 
covered their  freedom,  and  attempted  to  secure  tranquillity  by  adopting 
from  the  Thurians  the  constitution  of  Charon'das.  Thenceforward 
Rhegium  enjoyed  tranquillity  and  happiness,  until  it  was  captured  and 
destroyed  by  Dionys'ius  I.,  of  Syracuse  (b.  c,  392).  It  was  partially 
restored  by  Dionys'ius  II.  ;  but,  during  the  wars  of  Pyr'rhus  in  Italy, 
it  was  still  so  weak  as  to  require  the  protection  of  a  Roman  garrison. 
A  legion,  raised  in  Campania,  was  sent  to  Rhegium,  under  the  command 
of  Decius  Jubel'lus.  These  soldiers  having  been  used  to  a  life  of  hard- 
ship, began  soon  to  envy  the  luxurious  ease  and  wealth  of  the  citizens 
they  had  come  to  protect,  and  they  formed  a  perfidious  plan  for-  theii 
destruction  (b.  c.  281).  They  forged  letters  from  the  Rhegians  to  Pyr'- 
rhus, offering  to  put  that  monarch  in  possession  of  the  city,  and,  under 
this  pretence,  they  put  the  principal  part  of  the  citizens  to  death,  and 
drove  the  rest  into  exile.  The  Roman  senate  was  not  slow  in  punishing 
this  atrocious  outrage ;  they  sent  an  army  against  the  guilty  Campani- 
ans,  who  had  been  reinforced  by  several  bands  of  profligate  plunderers, 
and,  after  a  severe  struggle,  obtained  possession  of  the  city.  The  sur- 
vivors of  the  wicked  legionaries  were  beaten  with  rods,  and  beheaded 
in  bands  of  fifty  at  a  time  ;  and  a  few  Rhegians  who  survived  were  re- 
instated in  possession  of  their  estates,  liberties,  and  laws.  But  the  city 
was  too  weak  to  maintain  its  independence,  and  it  became  thenceforth 
subject  to  Rome. 


SICILY.  193 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

HISTORY    OF   SICILY. 

Section  I. — Geograjyhical  Outline, 

The  fertile  island  of  Sicily  was  known  by  various  names  to  the  an 
cicnts.  It  was  called  Triquet'ra,  or  Trinac'ria,from  its  triangular  shape , 
Sicania  and  Sicilia  from  the  Sic'ani  and  Sic'uli,  Italian  hordes  who 
peopled  a  great  part  of  the  country.  Its  three  extreme  promontories 
were  named  Pelorum  {Faro),  Pachy'num  [Paxsaro),  and  Lilybse'um 
[Bocco)  ;  the  first  of  these  faces  Italy,  the  second  Greece,  and  the  third 
Africa.  From  the  narrowness  of  the  strait  opposite  Pelorum,  it  haa 
been  supposed  that  Sicily  was  broken  off  from  Italy  by  some  convulsion 
of  nature  ;  and  the  Greek  city  Rhegium,  which  stood  "on  the  Italian  side 
of  the  strait,  derives  its  name  from  this  common  opinion.*  The  strait 
is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  of  its  current,  and  for  the  rock  Scyl'la, 
and  whirlpool  Charyb'dis,  the  passage  between  which  was  accounted 
very  dangerous.  These  places  are  frequently  described  by  the  Latin 
poets.  Ovid  thus  alludes  to  the  opinion  of  Italy  having  been  joined  to 
Sicily  near  the  city  of  Zan'cle,  or  Messana : — 

"  So  Zan'cle  to  the  Italian  earth  was  tied, 

And  men  once  walked,  where  ships  at  anchor  ride ; 

Till  Neptune  overlooked  the  narrow  way, 

And  in  disdain  poured  in  the  conquering  sea." 

The  most  remarkable  cities  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily  were  Zan'- 
cle, or  Messana  {Messina),  deriving  its  first  name  from  the  old  Sicihan 
word  Zan'clos  signifying  a  reapmg-hook,  to  which  its  curved  shore 
bears  some  fanciful  resemblance ;  and  its  second  from  the  Messenian 
exiles,  who  conquered  the  city  :  Tauromin'ium  {Taormina),  on  the  river 
Tauromin'ius  ( Cantara),  near  which  was  the  coast  called  Cop'ria,  or 
"  the  dunghill,"  from  the  number  of  wrecks  cast  upon  it  by  the  whirl- 
pool of  Charyb'dis  :  Cat' ana,  a  Chalcidian  colony  on  the  river  Amenes 
{Judiccllo)  :  Morgan'tium,  a  city  of  the  Italian  Sic'uli,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Sigmfc'thus  {La  Jarelta)  :  Leontini,  a  flourishing  Chalcidian  col- 
ony :  Hyb'la,  celebrated  for  its  honey,  founded  by  the  Sicanians,  and 
subsequently  colonized  by  the  Megarians  :  and  Syracuse,  the  ancienJ 
capital  of  the  island. 

Syracuse  contained  within  its  walls,  which  were  eighteen  miles  it, 
circumference,  four  very  considerable  cities  united  into  one,  like  Lon 

•  From  (myvvnt,  to  break, 
13 


i94  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

don,  Westminister,  Southwark,  and  Lambeth.  Acradina,  tlie  largest  ol 
the  four,  contained  the  principal  public  buildings,  such  as  the  Prytane- 
um,  the  palace  of  justice,  and  the  templ-^  of  Jupiter  Olympius.  Ty'che,* 
which  stood  between  Acradina  and  the  hill  Epip'old?,  contained  the 
Gymnasium  for  the  exercise  of  youth,  and  several  temples,  especially 
one  dedicated  to  Fortune,  from  which  this  division  of  the  city  derived 
its  name.  The  third  quarter,  called  Orty'gia,  was  an  island,  connected 
with  the  other  parts  by  a  bridge  ;  it  contained  two  beautiful  temples,  one 
sacred  to  Diana,  and  the  other  to  Minerva,  the  tutelary  deities  of  Syra- 
cuse. Neap'olis,  or  the  new  city,  was  the  latest  erected :  it  contained 
the  teu'.ples  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine,  and  the  statue  of  Apol'lo  Tem- 
en'ites,  celebrated  by  Cicero  as  the  most  valuable  monument  of  Syra- 
cuse. 

Near  Syracuse  was  a  steep  hill  named  Epip'olae,  defended  in  the  later 
ages  by  a  fort  called  Lab'dalon.  On  this  hill  was  the  famous  prison 
called  Latom'iae,  on  account  of  its  being  partly  excavated  from  the  liv 
ing  rock.*  It  was  a  cave  on.e  hundred  and  twenty-five  paces  long  and 
twenty  ^eet  broad,  constructed  by  order  of  Dionys'ius  the  tyrant,  who 
imprisoned  there  those  whom  he  suspected  of  being  opposed  to  his  usur- 
pation. A  winding  tube,  constructed  on  the  model  of  the  human  ear, 
ascended  from  the  cavern  to  a  private  apartment,  where  the  tyrant  used 
to  sit  and  listen  to  the  conversation  of  his  unhappy  captives. 

The  celebrated  fountain  of  Arethusa,  now  dried  up,  arose  in  the  is- 
land of  Orty'gia.     The  poets  fabled  that  the  Al'pheus,  a  river  of  E'lis. 
in  the  Pelopoimesus,  rolled  its  waters  either  through  or  under  the  waters 
of  the  sea,  without  mixing  with  them,  as  far  as  the  fountain  of  Arethvi 
»a;  which  gave  occasion  to  the  following  lines  of  Virgil: — ■ 

Thy  sacred  succor,  Arethusa,  bring, 
To  crown  my  labor ;   'tis  the  last  I  sing ; 
So  may  thy  silver  streams  beneath  the  tide, 
Unmixed  with  briny  seas,  securely  glide  ! 

On  the  African  side  of  Sicily  stood  Camarina,  between  the  rivera 
O'anus  (Frascolari)  and  Hip'paris  [Camarana)  :  it  was  anciently  a  very 
wealthy  city ;  but  its  inhabitants  having  drained  a  marsh  by  which 
Jie  city  was  protected,  the  enemies  found  easy  access,  and  destroy- 
ed it ;  hence  Ne  moveas  Camarinam,  "  Remove  not  Camarina,"  hag 
passed  into  a  proverb.  Following  the  line  of  coast  westward,  we  mee. 
Gela  {Terra  Nova),  now  in  ruins,  and  Ag'ragas  or  Agrigen'tum  {Gir- 
genti),  between  the  rivers  Ag'ragas  {San  Biaggio)  and  Hyp'sa  {Drago). 
It  was  anciently  the  rival  of  Syracuse  :  and  we  may  judge  of  its  former 
strength  and  splendor  from  the  following  description  given  of  it  by  the 
historian  Polybius  :  "  It  exceeds  most  of  the  Sicilian  cities  in  streno-th, 
beauty,  and  situation,  and  magnificent  edifices.  Though  erected  at  the 
distance  of  eighteen  hundred  furlongs  from  the  sea,  it  can  conveniently 
import  all  Idnds  of  provision  and  munitions  of  war.  From  its  natural 
strength,  increased  judiciously  by  fortifications,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
impregnable  places  in  the  island.  Its  walls  are  built  upon  a  rock,  ren- 
dered inaccessible  by  art.  The  river,  from  which  the  city  takes  ita 
aame,  protects  it  on  the  south,  and  it  is  covered  by  the  Hyp'sa  on  the 

*  From  TV xn,  fortune.  f  From  Xaa;,  a  stone,  and  T-t/ijw,  to  cut. 


SICILY.  195 

iv^est ;  on  the  east  it  it  is  defended  by  a  Ibrtress,  built  on  the  blink  of  a 
precipice,  which  serves  instead  of  a  ditch."  The  citadel,  called  Om'- 
phale,  which  stood  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ag'ragas,  was  more  ancient  than 
the  city  itself. 

The  other  cities  on  the  African  side  were  Mino'a  Heraclea  (Castel 
Binncfl),  derivinsr  its  first  name  from  a  Cretan,  and  its  second  from  a 
Lacedaemonian  colony,  on  the  banks  of  the  Haly'cus  (Plalani) ;  and 
Selinus  [Terra  delle  Pulci),  on  the  river  Selinus  [Madiuni),  founded  by 
a  colony  from  Meg'ara. 

On  the  coast  opposite  Italy  were  the  cities  Lilyba^'um  [Marsala),  cel- 
ebrated in  ancient  times  for  its  excellent  harbor  ;  Drep'anum  {Trapani), 
deriving  its  name  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  its  coast  to  a  scythe  ;* 
E'ryx  [Tripano  del  Monte),  on  a  mountain  of  the  same  name  ;  Seges'ta, 
or  Eges'ta,  now  in  ruins,  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  a  Trojan 
colony,  who  named  the  streams  that  watered  their  territory  the  Scainan'- 
iler  and  the  Sim'ois,  in  memory  ol  the  rivers  of  their  native  land  ;  the 
former  of  these  is  now  II  jiume  di  San  Barlolumeo,  the  latter  a  rivulet 
without  a  name  ;  Panor'mus  [Palermo),  the  present  capital  of  Sicily, 
originally  founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  between  the  Orothus  [AmiragUo) 
and  the  Leutherus  [Baiaria).  In  the  neighborhood  of  Panor'mus  was 
a  mountain  fortress  called  E'reta  (Monle  Pclegrino)  :  Himae'ra,  Alaj'sa, 
and  Agathyr'na,  are  now  in  ruins. 

In  the  interior  of  the  country  were  Ad'ranum  [Adcrno),  near  the  foot 
of  Mount  Mina.]  En'na  [Castro  Janni),  sacred  to  Ceres;  and  En'- 
gyum  (Mandania),  near  the  springs  of  the  Alae'sus  [Gasonia). 

The  most  remarkable  natural  object  in  Sicily  is  the  celebrated  vol- 
cano of  th3  lofty  Mount  iEtna,  covered  with  eternal  snows,  though  ever 
burning.      .c  has  been  described  by  Sil'ius  Ital'icus  : — 

"  Its  lofty  summits,  wondrous  to  be  told. 
Display  bright  fliimes  amid  the  ice  and  cold; 
Above,  its  rocks,  with  flames  incessant  glow. 
Though  bound  in  icy  fetters  far  below; 
The  peak  is  claimed  by  winter  as  its  throne, 
"While  glowing  ashes  o'er  its  snows  are  shown." 

The  fire  which  continually  bums  in  the  bowels  of  the  mountain  made 
the  poets  place  here  the  forges  of  Vulcan  and  his  Cyclopean  attendants, 
and  the  prison  of  the  giants  who  rebelled  against  Jupiter.  This  fiction 
is  beautifully  related  by  Virgil,  in  his  description  of  the  mountain  : — 

"  The  port  capacious,  and  secure  from  wind, 

Is  to  the  foot  of  thund'ring  ^tna  joined. 

By  lurns  a  pitchy  cloud  she  rolls  on  high; 

By  turns  hot  embers  from  her  entrails  fly, 

And  flakes  of  mountain-flames  that  lick  the  sky. 

OA  from  her  bowels  massy  rocks  are  thrown. 

And  shivered  by  their  force  come  piecemeal  down. 

Oft  liquid  lakes  of  burning  sulphur  flow. 

Fed  from  the  fiery  springs  that  burn  below. 

Enceladus,  they  say,  transfixed  by  Jove, 

"With  blasted  limbs  came  trembling  from  above | 

•  From  iptvravov,  a  tcythe. 


196  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

And  when  he  fell,  the  avenging  father  drew 

This  flaming  hill,  and  on  his  body  threw  ; 

As  often  as  he  turns  his  weary  sides, 

He  shakes  the  solid  isle,  and  smoke  the  heavens  hides.'* 

The  ^olian  or  Vulcanian  islands  lie  off  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  in 
the  Tuscan  sea.  The  most  remarkable  are  Lip'ara  (Lipari)  and 
Stronyg'lce  {Stru?nboH).  North  of  Cape  Lilybse'um  were  the  islands 
called  ^E'gates,  or  iE'gades :  they  are  three  in  number ;  Phorban'tia 
{Levanzo),  Mgusa.  {Favignano),  and  Hi'ra  [Maretino). 

Section  II. — Historical  Notices  of  the  ancient  Inhabitants  of  Sicily. 

CHRONOLOGY  UNCERTAIN. 

The  Cyclopians  and  Laestrigons  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Sicily.  It  is  impossible  to  trace  their  origin  ;  we  only 
know  that  their  settlements  were  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  jEtna. 
Their  inhumanity  toward  strangers,  and  the  flames  of  jEtna,  were  the 
source  of  many  popular  fables  and  poetic  fictions.  It  was  said  that  the 
Cy'clops  were  giants  ;  that  they  had  but  one  eye,  placed  in  the  centre 
of  their  forehead ;  that  they  fed  on  human  flesh ;  and  that  they  were 
employed  by  Vulcan  to  forge  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove. 

Next  in  antiquity  were  the  Sicanians,  probably  an  Italian  horde  driven 
southward  by  the  pressure  of  the  Pelas'gi,  though  many  ancient  writers 
assert  that  they  came  from  Spain.  They  finally  settled  in  the  western 
part  of  the  island,  and  were  said  to  have  joined  the  Trojan  exiles  in 
building  E'ryx  and  Egesta. 

After  the  Sic'ani  had  been  for  some  ages  exclusive  masters  of  the 
island,  the  Sic'uli,  an  ancient  people  of  Ausonia,  crossed  the  strait ; 
and  having  defeated  the  Sicanians  in  a  sanguinary  engagement,  con- 
fined them  in  a  narrow  territory,  and  changed  the  name  of  the  island 
from  Sicania  to  Sicily.  Some  centuries  after  this  revolution,  Greek 
colonies  began  to  settle  on  the  Sicilian  coast ;  the  principal  states  that 
founded  settlements  in  the  island  were  Chal'cis  in  Eubce'a,  Meg'ara, 
Corinth,  the  Dorians  from  Rhodes  and  Crete,  and  the  Messenians, 
driven  from  their  native  country  by  the  Spartans.  To  these  may  be 
added  two  Italian  colonies,  the  Morgetes  and  the  Mamer'tines. 

The  Sic'uli  were  first  united  under  one  head  by  a  king  named 
iE'olus,  whose  age  is  uncertain.  Their  most  renowned  sovereign  was 
Deucetius,  who  engaged  in  a  long  war  with  the  Syracusans  ;  but  hav- 
ing been  frequently  defeated,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  himself  to 
their  mercy.  With  unusual  clemency,  the  Syracusans  granted  him 
liberty  and  life,  and  assigned  a  pension  for  his  support,  on  condition  of 
his  living  in  the  territories  of  their  parent  city,  Corinth.  Having  re- 
moved this  formidable  rival,  the  Syracusans  reduced  the  whole  country 
of  the  Sic'uli,  stormed  th(ur  chief  city,  Triquefra,  and  levelled  it  to  the 
ground.  When  the  Athenians  invaded  Sicily  under  the  command  of 
Nic'ias,  they  were  joined  by  the  Sic'uli,  who  gave  them  very  effective 
assistance.  They  likewise  aided  the  Carthaginians  in  their  first  at- 
tempts to  gain  possession  of  the  island.  Having  been  subsequently  in- 
duced to  join  the   Syracusans,  they  were  disgracefully  betrayed  to  the 


SYRACUSE. 


197 


Carthaginians  by  the  tyrant  Dionys'ius,  and  were    forced   to  bear  a 
cruel  yoke,  until  their  independence  was  restored  by  Timoleon, 

Section  III. — The  History  of  Syracuse. 

FROM   B.  c.  735   TO  B.  c.  212. 

Syracuse  was  founded  by  a  Corinthian  colony  (b.  :;.  735),  under 
ie  guidance  of  Archy'tas,  a  nobleman  of  rank,  compelled  to  quit  his 
native  country  by  some  political  dispute.  Its  form  of  government  for 
two  centuries  and  a  half  was  republican  ;  and  though,  during  this  pe- 
riod, the  state  does  not  appear  to  have  risen  to  any  considerable  height 
of  power,  yet  the  Syracusans  founded  |te  colonies  of  A'crae,  Cas'menae, 
and  Camarina.  An  aristocratic  faction  having  cruelly  opuressed  the 
citizens,  the  populace  at  length  combined  to  throw  off  thi.  yoke,  and 
drove  the  tyrannical  nobles  into  exile  (b.  c.  485).  They  fled  to  Gela, 
then  ruled  by  Gelon,  an  able  and  ambitious  usurper,  who  had  recently 
become  sovereign  of  his  country.  Gelon  levied  an  army,  and,  accom- 
panied by  the  exiles,  marched  to  Syracuse,  of  which  he  easily  made 
himself  master. 

Under  the  administration  of  its  new  master  the  city  rose  rapidly  in 
wealth  and  importance,  while  Gelon  himself  acquired  so  much  fame  by 
repeated  victories  over  the  Carthaginians,  that  the  Athenians  and  Spar- 
tans, then  menaced  by  the  Persian  invasion,  earnestly  sought  his  as- 
sistance. Gelon  demanded  to  be  appointed  captain-general  of  the  con- 
federate Greeks ;  a  stipulation  to  which  the  Athenians  and  Spartans 
returned  a  stern  refusal ;  and  before  any  further  steps  could  be  taken, 
he  learned  that  Xer'xes  had  engaged  the  Carthaginians  to  attack  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Sicily  and  Italy,  while  he  invaded  the  parent  state. 

After  spending  three  years  in  making  preparations,  the  Carthaginians 
sent  against  Sicily  an  immense  armament,  under  the  command  of  llamil'- 
car,  said  to  consist  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  two  thousand  ships 
>f  war,  and  three  thousand  vessels  of  burden.  Having  effected  a  landing, 
Hamil'car  laid  siege  to  Himera,  then  ruled  by  Theron,  the  father-in-law 
of  Gelon.  The  king  of  Syracuse,  though  unable  to  muster  more  than 
fifty  thousand  men  at  this  sudden  emergency,  marched  with  all  ex- 
pedition to  raise  the  siege.  On  his  road  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 
hitercept  a  messenger  from  the  Selinuntines  to  the  Carthaginian  gene- 
ral, promising  to  send  him  a  stipulated  body  of  cavalry  on  an  appointed 
day.  Gelon  led  an  equal  number  of  his  horse  to  the  Carthaginian  camp 
at  the  specified  time,  and  having  gained  unsuspected  admission,  so  dis- 
concerted the  enemy  by  a  sudden  attack,  that  the  whole  host  was  thrown 
into  confusion,  and  the  Syracusans  won  an  easy  victory.  Hamil'car 
was  slain,  and  his  mighty  army  all  but  annihilated.  Carthage  humbly 
sought  peace,  which  was  generously  granted  by  the  conqueror.  During 
the  brief  renminder  of  his  reign,  Gelon  strenuously  exerted  himself  for 
the  benefit  of  his  subjects  ;  and  though  no  one  can  justify  the  means 
by  which  he  acquired  supremacy,  there  are  few  who  will  not  pardon 
his  original  error  on  account  of  the  use  he  made  of  his  power.  His 
subjects,  after  his  death,  honored  him  as  a  demigod. 

Hiero  I.  succeeded  his  brother  Gelon  (b.  c.  477)  ;  his  administration 
was  more  brilliant  than  useful ;  he  protected  the  arts  and  sciences  ;  bul 


198  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

ne  also  encouraged  a  taste  for  luxury  and  magnificence,  contrary  to  the 
policy  of  his  more  enlightened  predecessor.  He  subdued  the  cities  of 
Cat' ana  and  Nax'us,  expelled  the  ancient  inhabitants,  and  supplied  theii 
place  with  fresh  colonies  from  Syracuse  and  the  Peloponnesus.  A 
more  honorable  and  useful  achievement  Avas  his  decisive  victory  over 
the  Etrurian  pirates  off  Cumse  ;  these  had  long  been  the  terror  of  the 
western  Mediterranean  ;  but  after  their  overthrow  by  Hiero,  they  ceased 
to  infest  the  seas  for  several  centuries.  After  this  exploit  he  engaged 
in  war  with  the  tyrant  of  Agrigen'tum,  who  was  forced  to  abdicate  the 
government,  and  his  subjects  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Hiero. 

Thrasybu'lus,  likewise  a  brother  of  Gelon,  became  sovereign  of  SyX' 
acuse  on  the  death  of  Hiero  (b.  c.  459) ;  but  his  tyranny  and  cruelty 
soon  provoked  a  revolution  ;  he  was  dethroned  and  the  republican  con- 
stitution restored.  But  the  Syracusans  gained  little  by  the  change.  A 
system  of  secret  voting,  called  pctali.sm*  was  introduced,  precisely 
similar  to  the  Athenian  ostracism,  and  most  of  the  leading  statesmen 
were  banished  by  a  giddy  populace.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the 
Athenians  made  their  unfortunate  attempt  to  conquer  Sicily,  whose  re- 
sults have  been  already  described  in  the  chapter  on  Grecian  history. 
After  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Athenian  armaments  (b.  c.  413), 
the  Egestans,  who  had  invited  the  invaders,  sought  and  obtained  the 
aid  of  Carthage :  this  led  to  a  series  of  sanguinary  wars,  which  have 
been  noticed  in  the  chapter  on  the  history  of  Carthage. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  political  disturbances  in  Syracuse,  Dionys'ius 
I.  usurped  the  government  (b.  c.405),  and  though  deservedly  branded 
as  a  tyrant,  it  must  be  confessed  that  his  vigorous  administration  was 
crowned  with  success  abroad  and  prosperity  at  home.  The  greater 
part  of  his  reign  was  passed  in  wars  against  Carthage  and  the  cities 
of  Magna  Graecia,  and  also  against  the  ancient  race  of  the  Sic'uli, 
whose  choice  of  party  generally  decided  the  success  of  these  wars. 

Dionys'ius  I.  was  cut  off  by  poison  (b.  c.  368),  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  youthful  son,  Dionys'ius  II.,  under  the  guardianship  of  the  vir- 
tuous Dio.  But  neither  Dio  nor  his  friend  the  philosopher  Plato,  could 
improve  the  corrupted  character  of  the  young  prince.  He  drove  Dio 
into  banishment  (b.  c.  360),  and  then  gave  a  loose  reign  to  his  pas- 
sions, indulging  in  the  most  extravagant  luxury  and  debauchery.  Dio 
returned  (b.  c.  357),  and  after  a  long  struggle,  restored  the  republican 
form  of  government.  He  was,  however,  assassinated  (b.  c.  353).  Syr- 
acuse became  the  prey  of  sanguinary  factions,  of  which  Dionys'ius, 
after  ten  years  of  exile,  took  advantage  to  recover  his  throne.  His 
tyranny,  and  the  treachery  of  I'cetas  the  Leontine,  who,  when  invited 
to  aid  the  Syracusans,  betrayed  their  interests  to  the  Carthaginians, 
compelled  the  citizens  to  seek  succor  from  Corinth.  Timoleon,  ihe 
most  splendid  example  of  a  true  republican  that  ancient  history  affords, 
was  sent  to  their  assistance,  but  with  very  inadequate  forces  (b.  c.  345). 
His  abilities  were,  however,  of  more  value  than  an  army  ;  he  dethroned 
Dionys'ius,  expelled  I'cetas,  and,  by  a  brilliant  victory,  humbled  the 
pride  of  the  Carthaginians.  Timoleon's  death  (b.  c.  337)  was  followed 
by  a  long  period  of  stormy  weakness,  which  ended  in  the  usurpation 

•  From  TTtraAoc,  a  leaf. 


SYRACUSE.  19S 

of  Agathoc'les  (b.  c.  317).     The  wars  of  that  usurper    in   Sicily  and 
A-frica  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Carthaginian  history. 

After  the  death  of  Agathoc'les  (b.  c.  289),  the  Syracusans,  harassed 
by  intestine  commotions,  and  closely  pressed  by  the  Mamer'tincs  and 
Carthaginians,  suffered  the  most  dreadful  calamities,  and  were  at  length 
forced  to  supplicate  the  aid  of  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus.  That  mon- 
arch, after  having  conquered  almost  the  entire  island,  so  disgusted  his 
supporters  by  his  arrogance,  that  he  was  compelled  to  retire  (b.  c.  275). 
The  Syracusans  at  length,  wearied  of  anarchy,  conferred  the  throne  or 
Hiero  II.,  descended  from  the  ancient  royal  family  of  Gelon.  Under 
this  prince  the  city  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity  during  the  wars  be- 
tween Rome  and  Carthage,  in  which  Ije  had  the  wisdom  to  take  the 
Roman  side.  He  died  of  old  age  (b.  c.  215),  after  a  long  and  glorious 
reign.  After  his  death,  the  Carthaginian  party  acquired  supremacy  in 
Syracuse,  and  made  a  profligate  use  of  their  power.  The  new  rulers 
soon  provoked  the  resentment  of  the  Romans,  who  sent  an  army  into 
Sicily,  and  after  a  long  siege,  protracted  by  the  ingenious  mechanical 
inventions  of  the  celebrated  mathematician  Archimedes,  took  it  by 
storm  (b.  c.  212),  and  laid  it  level  with  the  ground. 

Most  of  the  other  Greek  cities  in  Sicily  were  involved  in  the  for- 
tunes of  Syracuse.  Agrigen'tum,  having  been  used  as  a  military  and 
naval  station  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first  Punic  war,  was  seized 
by  the  Romans  so  early  as  b.  c.  262.  Sicily  finally  became  a  Roman 
province,  and  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  attached  to  the  empire.  It 
was  also  one  of  the  best  governed  ;  a  blessing  which  must  be  attributed 
not  merely  to  its  vicinity  to  the  seat  of  power,  but  also  to  the  fact  of  its 
corn-harvests  being  regarded  as  the  resource  to  which  the  Romans 
should  look  as  the  agricultural  productions  of  Italy  became  more  an  3 
more  in»  iequate  to  the  support  of  the  population.     > 


200  ANCIENT  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XV. 
HISTORY  OF   THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC. 

Section  I. —  Traditions  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Romans. 

The  legends  of  Rome,  preserved  by  her  best  historians,  relate  vhai 
iEneas,  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  led  a  colony  of  his  countrymen 
into  Italy,  and  founded  the  city  of  Lavin'ium.  It  would  be  easy  to 
show  that  this  tale  is  destitute  of  truth  or  importance,  but  it  is  worth 
while  to  trace  its  origin.  That  the  Romans  were  partly  of  Pelasgic 
origin  appears  evident  from  the  name  of  their  city,  which  in  Greek 
signifies  "  a  fortress."*  In  almost  every  country  where  the  Pelas'gi 
settled  we  find  a  city  named  ^Enus,  which,  therefore,  was  probably  a 
generic  rather  than  an  individual  name.  If  any  of  the  Pelas'gi  who 
settled  on  the  hills  at  the  south  side  of  the  Tiber  came  from  an  iEnus, 
they  most  probably  retained  their  ancient  name  ^neadae  ;  and  the  sig- 
nification of  that  patronymic  being  forgotten  in  proress  of  time,  it  was 
confounded  with  another  similar  name,  preserved  by  an  independent 
tradition,  the  ^Eneada,  or  followers  of  iEneas,  who  survived  the  de- 
struction of  their  country. 

The  legends  proceed  to  state  that  three  years  after  the  landing  of  the 
Trojans  in  Italy,  they  were  supernaturally  guided  to  the  spot  where 
Lavin'ium  was  erected.  Their  rising  power  gave  offence  to  the  Ru- 
tulians  and  Etruscans ;  Tur'nus  and  Mezen'tius  led  an  army  to  expel 
the  intruders.  A  battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Numicius  ; 
Tur'nus  was  slain  by  ^Eneas,  who,  in  his  turn,  fell  a  victim  to  Mezen'- 
tius ;  or,  as  was  more  generally  believed,  disappeared  in  the  stream,  and 
became  a  god,  under  the  name  of  Jupiter  In'diges.  Mezen'tius  was  ulti- 
mately  slain  by  Iiilus,  or  Ascanius,  the  son  of  ^neas,  whose  descend- 
ants became  lords  of  Latium. 

After  the  lapse  of  thirty  years,  Lavin'ium  was  deserted  for  the  more 
secure  city  of  Al'ba,  erected  on  the  Alban  Mount  {Monte  Cava) ;  and 
here  the  thirty  confederate  cities  of  Latium  offered  common  sacrifices 
to  the  gods  of  the  Pelasgic  nation. 

The  traditions  then  go  on  to  state  that,  at  an  uncertain  date  after  the 
erection  of  the  city,  Procas,  king  of  Al'ba,  leaving  two  sons  at  his  death, 
bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  Numitor,  the  elder,  and  his  treasures,  in- 
cluding the  ancient  wealth  that  had  been  saved  from  the  sack  of  Troy, 
to  Amiilius.  His  riches  enabled  the  younger  prince  to  bribe  a  band 
of  supporters,  dethrone  his  brother,  procure  the  murder  of  Numitor's 
youthful  son,  and  have  his  daughter  Il'ia,  or  Rhea  Syl'via,  appointed  a 

•P(0|i;;,  strength. 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  201 

vestal  virgin.  While  going  to  draw  water  from  a  spring,  for  the  Ber- 
vice  of  the  temple,  she  was  violated  by  the  god  Mars,  and  became  the 
parent  of  twin  boys.  Amulius  caused  Syl'via  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
the  children  thrown  into  the  A'nio.  The  helpless  infants  were  borne 
down  the  stream  to  the  Tiber ;  and  as  that  river  subsided  from  a  recent 
overflow,  they  were  deposited  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  hill,  beneath  a 
fig-iree,  called  the  fie  us  rumtndUs.  They  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf, 
and  fed  by  a  woodpecker,  until  they  were  discovered  b}*  Ac'ca  Lau- 
ren'tia,  wife  of  Faustulus,  the  royal  shepherd.  Among  her  twelve 
sons  and  the  neighboring  shepherds,  the  twins  became  distinguished 
Tor  courage,  and  were  chosen  heads  of  rival  factions.  The  followers 
k)f  Rom'ulus  were  named  Quin^l'ii ;  those  of  Remus,  Fabii.  When 
they  grew  up,  Remus,  being  in^l^-ed  in  a  dispute  willi  the  herdsmen 
of  the  deposed  Numitor,  and  being  taken  prisoner,  was  carried  to  Al^ba 
as  a  robber.  The  youthful  prince,  when  brought  into  the  presence  of 
his  grandfather,  so  charmed  him  by  the  intrepidity  of  his  replies,  that 
Numitor  hesitated  to  pronounce  sentence  of  death.  In  the  meantime, 
Rom'ulus,  having  learned  from  the  ancient  shepherd  the  secret  of  his 
birth,  assembled  his  comrades  to  rescue  Remus  ;  and,  being  joined  by 
some  of  his  grandfather's  old  adherents,  deposed  Amulius,  and  restored 
Numitor  tu  his  throne. 

Love  foi  the  spot  where  their  lives  had  been  thus  miraculously  pre- 
served, induced  the  young  men  to  solicit  their  grandfather  for  permission 
to  erect  a  city  on  the  banks  of  ihe  Tiber.  Scarcely  had  leave  been 
granted,  when  a  violent  contest  arose  between  the  brothers  ;  Rom'ulus 
insisted  that  the  city  should  be  called  Rome,  and  should  be  built  on 
Mount  Palatine  ;  Remus  demanded  that  it  should  be  named  Remiiria, 
and  erected  on  Ivlount  Aventine.  It  was  resolved  that  the  question 
should  be  decided  by  the  most  favorable  augury.  Remus  had  tlie  first 
omen,  six  vultures.;  but  Rom'ulus  the  more  perfect,  twelve  vultures. 
A  second  dispute  arose ;  but  the  party  of  Rom'ulus  prevailed,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  new  city  was  laid  on  Mount  Palatine,  with  all  the 
ceremonies  of  Tuscan  superstition.  Scarcely  had  the  walls  began  to 
appear  above  the  surface,  when  Remus  leaped  over  them  in  an  insul.- 
ing  manner,  and  was  slain  either  by  Rom'ulus  or  one  of  his  followers. 

According  to  Var'ro,  whose  authority  has  been  followed  by  most 
chronologists,  Rome  was  founded  on  the  21st  of  April,  being  the  day 
sacred  to  Pales,  the  goddess  of  shepherds,  in  the  third  year  of  the  sixth 
Olympiad,  four  hundred  and  thirty-one  years  after  the  destruction  of 
Troy,  and  seven  hundred  and  fifty-three  before  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era.  It  was  built  in  a  square  form,  and  contained  origin- 
ally about  a  thousand  miserable  huts.  Such  was  the  humble  begin- 
ning of  a  city  destined  to  be  the  capital  of  the  world. 

Sect:on  II. — From  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Abolition  of  Royalty 
FROM  B.  C.  753  TO  B.  c.  509. 

In  order  to  procure  irdiabitants  for  his  new  city,  Rom'ulus  opened 
an  asylum  for  all  whom  guilt  or  misfortune  compelled  to  quit  their 
native  country.     When  he  had  thus  procured  a  competent  number  of 


202  &.NCIENT  HISTORY. 

Citizens,  he  convened  an  assembly  of  the  people  to  chooso  a  coosiitTi 
tion  and  rulers.  As  he  had  anticipated,  he  was  elected  king  ;  but  at 
the  same  time  his  power  was  limited  by  municipal  institutions  tending 
to  secure  a  considerable  degree  of  freedom.  He  divided  the  colony 
into  three  tribes,  and  these  into  thirty  curiae  :  next  he  constituted 
classes  or  orders  of  the  state,  separating  the  wealthier  or  more  nobly 
born,  whom  he  styled  patricians,  from  the  inferior  rank  of  plebeians. 
The  dignity  of  the  patricians  was  hereditary ;  and  eligibility  to  the 
principal  offices  of  state  was  long  confined  to  their  order.  To  prevent 
envy  or  sedition  arising  from  such  a  distinction,  he  engaged  both 
classes  to  each  other  by  the  obligation  of  clientship.  Every  plebeian 
was  allowed  to  choose  "  a  patron"  fi-Qin  the  body  of  the  patricians,  to 
whom  he  became  a  client;  and  th4panctity  of  this  mutual  tie  was 
preserved  by  the  most  awful  denunciations,  civil  and  religious,  against 
its  violation.  A  senate  of  one  hundred  was  chosen  to  aid  the  king  by 
their  counsels.  Rom'ulus  nominated  the  first,  who  had  the  privilege  of 
governing  the  city  in  his  absence  :  each  of  the  three  tribes  and  thirty 
curiae  chose  three,  which  completed  the  number.  The  senators,  either 
from  their  age,  or  from  the  similitude  of  their  care,  were  named  Patres 
{^faUicrs). 

The  next  ol^ject  that  required  the  attention  of  Rom'ulus  was  the  for- 
mation of  treaties  of  intermarriage  with  the  neighboring  states  ;  but 
these,  despising  the  mean  origin  of  the  Romans,  rejected  his  proposals 
with  scorn.  But  though  they  thus  refused  alliance,  they  flocked  to 
witness  the  ConsuaUa,  .splendid  games  which  Rom'ulus  proclaimed  in 
honor  of  Consus,  or  Neptune.  While  the  strangers  gazed  unsuspect- 
ingly on  the  spot,  their  maidens  were  seized  by  an  armed  band  of  young 
Romans,  who  compelled  them  to  become  their  wives  by  force.  Several 
of  the  injured  cities  had  recourse  to  arms,  but  were  successfully  defeat- 
ed. At  last  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  led  a  more  powerful 
army  against  them  ;  and  Rom'ulus,  unable  to  withstand  him  in  the 
field,  retreated  into  the  city,  leaving  a  garrison  to  protect  an  important 
outpost  on  the  Capitoline  hill.  Tarpeia,  the  daughter  of  the  governor, 
dazzled  by  the  splendid  bracelets  of  the  Sabines,  agreed  to  betray  the 
fortress  "  for  what  the  besiegers  wore  on  their  arms."  The  Sabines, 
either  mistaking  her  meaning,  or  anxious  to  punish  her  treachery,  threw 
their  shields  on  her  as  they  entered,  and  crushed  her  to  death.  The 
Romans  found  themselves  obliged,  by  the  loss  of  this  important  outpost, 
to  hazard  a  general  engagement ;  but  while  victory  was  still  doubtful, 
the  Sabine  women,  rushing  between  the  armies,  induced  them,  by  ear- 
nest supplications,  to  make  terms  of  peace.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
Sabines  should  erect  a  new  city  on  the  Quirinal  and  Capitoline  hills  ; 
that  there  should  be  a  "  comitium,"  or  place  of  common  assembly  for 
both  nations,  in  the  space  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills, 
and  that  Rom'ulus  and  Tatius  should  reign  conjointly.  The  murder  of 
Tatius,  not  long  after,  at  Lavin'ium,  left  Rom'ulus  sole  monarch  of  both 
nations. 

The  romantic  circumstances  just  narrated  bear  every  mark  of  having 
been  derived  from  some  national  ballad  or  legendary  lay,  and  conse- 
quently  are  not  to  be  received  as  historic  truth.  Even  less  confidence 
IS  due  to  the  narrative  of  the  Tuscau  wars,  with  which  the  Latin  his- 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  203 

torians  nny\i  filled  the  blank  of  thirty-seven  years  in  the  life  of  Rom'u- 
lus.     But  a  second  heroic  lay  recited,  that,  after  a  long  reign,  he  dis- 
appeared from  eanh,  and  became  a  god,  under  the  name  ot    Quirinue 
Opposed  to  this  was  an  ancient  tradition,  that  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by 
an  aristocratic  faction  in  the  senate-house  (b.   c.  717). 

On  tlie  death  of  Rom'ulus,  the  senate  appeared  anxious  to  retain  the 
supreme  power,  and  each  senator  in  rotation  was  to  enjoy  regal  authority 
for  one  day,  under  the  title  of  interrcx.  This  form  of  government  con- 
tinued a  year,  when  the  people  compelled  the  senate  to  elect  a  king. 
Their  choice  fell  upon  Numa,  a  Sabine,  from  the  little  town  of  Cures, 
to  whom  Tatius  had  given  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The  history  of 
Numa  is  as  legendary  as  that  of  Rom'ulus  :  it  was  generally  believed 
that  he  had  been  a  disciple  of  Pythftg'oras,  and  this  opinion  maintained 
its  ground  in  spite  of  many  chronological  difficulties.  The  traditions  de- 
clare that  when  Numa  was  informed  of  his  election,  he  refused  to  enter 
on  his  office,  until  assured  that  the  gods,  by  their  auguries  had  con- 
tirmed  the  choice  of  the  senate.  His  first  care  was  to  regulate  the 
laws  of  property ;  he  divided  among  tlie  citizens  the  lands  that  Rom'u- 
lus had  conquered,  and  founded  the  worship  of  Ter'minus,  the  god  of 
boundaries,  thus  protecting  the  limits  of  estates  by  a  religious  sanction. 
His  most  important  labor,  however,  was  the  regulation  of  the  nationil 
worship  :  pretending  to  be  secretly  guided  by  the  goddess  Egeria,  he 
framed  the  entire  ritual  law  of  the  Romans,  including  regulations  for  the 
priesthood  and  for  the  prayers  and  worship  of  the  people.  His  tran- 
quil reign  is  said  to  have  lasted  forty  years  ;  the  temple  of  Janus,  which 
he  had  erected,  and  ordained  to  be  open  in  time  of  war,  and  shut  in 
peace,  remained  closed  during  the  entire  period,  and  his  pious  example 
diifused  the  blessings  of  tranquillity  throughout  the  whole  Italian  pe- 
ninsula. He  died  of  old  age  (b.  c.  679)  ;  and  the  legend  adds,  that  the 
nymph  Egeria,  through  grief  lor  his  loss,  melted  into  a  fountain. 

After  an  interregnum,  as  in  the  former  case,  Tul'lus  Hostil'ius,  the 
son  of  a  Roman  captain  who  had  been  eminently  distinguished  by  his 
valor  in  the  wars  of  Rom'ulus,  was  chosen  king.  The  history  of  his 
reign,  though  still  retaining  much  of  legendary  fiction,  especially  in  the 
account  of  the  Alban  war,  contains  some  circumstances  that  may  be 
regarded  as  facts.  In  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign,  mutual  acts  of 
violence  led  to  a  war  between  the  Romans  and  Albans.  The  armies 
of  both  cities  were  drawn  up  against  each  other  at  the  Fos'sa  CluiJ'ia, 
where  it  was  agreed  to  avert  a  battle  by  a  combat  between  three 
brothers  on  each  side,  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii,  whose  mothers  were 
sisters,  and  had  each  brought  three  children  into  the  world  at  a  birth. 
The  three  Curiatii  and  two  of  the  Horatii  fell  upon  the  field.  The 
survivnig  Horatius  sullied  his  victory  by  slaying  his  sister,  who  was 
bewailing  the  death  of  her  cousin,  to  whom  she  had  been  betrothed ; 
and  was  about  to  be  executed  by  Tul'lus,  but  he  appealed  to  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  Romans  unanimously  insisted  on  the  pardon  of  their  chain- 
pion. 

In  consequence  of  the  previous  agreement,  Al'ba  became  subject  to 
Rome.  Tul'lus  next  engaged  ii-  war  with  the  Fiden'ates,  and  summoned 
his  new  vassals  to  his  aid.  Me  /tins  Fufietius,  the  Alban  dictator,  broka 
bis  faith  with  the  Romans,  but  had  not  courage  to  complete  his  defec 


204  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

don.  His  meditated  treachery  was  punished  with  death.  Soon  after- 
ward the  Romans  surprised  Al'ba,  and  levelled  it  to  the  ground,  sparing 
only  the  temples  of  the  gods  ;  no  injury,  however,  was  done  to  the  cit- 
izens ;  they  were  removed  to  Rome,  and  habitations  assigned  them  on 
the  CcElian  hill.  The  destruction  of  Al'ba,  and  the  settlement  of  ita 
citizens  on  the  Coelian  hill,  may  be  regarded  as  historical  facts ;  the 
other  circumstances  arc  clearly  disguised  by  poetic  fiction. 

After  the  conquest  of  Al'ba,  Tul'lus  waged  successful  wtrs  against 
the  Latins  and  Sabines  ;  but  he  was  cut  off  in  the  midst  of  his  victori- 
ous career  (b.  c.  640),  by  some  superstitious  experiments  recommended 
to  him  as  a  remedy  for  sickness,  which  the  legends  declare  brought 
down  upon  him  the  vengeful  thunderbolts  of  the  gods. 

An'cus  Mar'tius,  said  to  have  been  the  grandson  of  Numa,  was  the 
next  king.  Like  his  ancestor,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  regulation 
of  religious  ceremonies,  especially  those  used  in  declaring  war  or  pro- 
claiming peace  ;  he  also  caused  the  principal  parts  of  the  Roman  ritual 
to  be  transcribed  on  tables,  that  all  might  know  how  to  conduct  them- 
.lelves  in  public  or  private  worship.  His  peaceful  labors  were  inter- 
rupted by  a  war  with  the  Latins,  whom  he  subdued,  and  carried  several 
thousands  of  them  to  Rome,  where  they  were  assigned  settlements  on 
Mount  Aventine.  His  conquests  were  extended  into  Etruria  and  along 
both  banks  of  the  Tiber  to  the  sea.  He  founded  the  town  and  port  of 
Os'tia  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  this  first  naval 
establishment  of  the  Romans  was  intended  rather  for  piracy  than  trade. 
Nor  did  he  pay  less  attention  to  the  city  than  to  its  dominions  ;  a  new 
line  of  fortifications,  the  first  bridge  over  the  Tiber,  and  the  first  public 
prison,  now  the  oldest  remaining  monument  in  Rome,  are  generally 
ascribed  to  An'cus.  Of  still  greater  importance  was  his  legal  constitu- 
tion of  the  plebeian  order  in  the  state,  and  the  assignment  of  lands  to 
this  body  from  the  conquered  territories.  His  death  (b.  c.  618)  is  said 
by  some  authors  to  have  been  accelerated  by  violence. 

We  now  approach  one  of  the  most  important,  but  also  one  of  the  most 
obscure,  periods  in  the  early  history  of  Rome  ;  the  reigns  of  Tarquin'- 
ius  Pris'cus  and  his  son-in-law  Ser'vius  Tul'lius.  Lucius  Tarquin'ius 
Pris'cT  5  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Damaratus,  one  of  the  Bac'- 
chiads,  who  fled  from  Corinth  to  avoid  the  vengeance  of  Cyp'selus, 
Niebuhr  has  pointed  out  the  many  chronological  difficulties  involved  in 
this  statement,  but  these  do  not  furnish  sufficient  reason  for  rejecting 
the  legend  altogether :  by  the  simple  change  of  "  son"  into  "  descendant," 
by  no  means  an  improbable  substitution,  the  truth  of  the  story  is  brought 
•within  the  verge  of  possibility.  His  original  name  is  said  to  have  been 
Lucumo  ;  this  we  know  to  have  been  an  Etrurian  title  of  .iignity ;  and 
if  we  understand  by  it  that  he  held  a  magisterial  office  in  his  native 
coimtry,  it  will  explain  the  respect  with  which  he  was  received  at 
Rome,  and  the  trust  reposed  in  him  by  An'cus.  He  is  said  to  have  re 
moved  from  Tarquin'ii,  his  native  city,  partly  beccuse  his  foreign  de- 
scent exposed  him  to  envy,  and  partly  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife 
Tan'aquil,  who  was  celebrated  for  her  skill  in  augury.  With  this  his- 
tory there  seems  to  be  intermingled  the  traditions  respecting  Coe'les  Vi- 
ben'na,  a  leader  of  independent  companies,  who  hired  his  soldiers  as 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC. 


205 


mercenaries  in  the  Tuscan  wars,  and  finally  came  and  settled  at  Rome 
with  his  tbllowers  in  an  uncertain  age. 

Tarquia'ius  Pris'cus  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  young  sons  of 
An'cus  ;  hut  by  his  influence  with  the  people,  he  had  lue  claims  of 
these  princes  set  aside,  and  was  himself  chosen  king.  He  introduced 
many  Etrurian  customs  and  ceremonies  into  Rome,  especially  those 
connected  with  the  dignities  of  kings  and  magistrates.  The  accounts 
of  his  wars  with  the  Etruscans,  Latins,  and  Sabines,  are  very  contra- 
dictory ;  but  it  seems  not  improbable  tliat,  toward  the  close  of  his  reign, 
these  three  nations  acknowledged  his  supremacy.  His  victory  over 
the  Sabines  was  owing  to  his  superiority  in  cavalry.  It  had  been  ori- 
ginally his  intention  to  add  three  new  centuries  to  the  equestrian  order; 
but  this  plan  was  opposed  by  the  celebrated  augur,  At'tus  Ns'vius, 
whose  authority,  in  an  age  of  superstition,  rivalled  that  of  the  kings. 
A  mode  was  found  for  reconciling  the  opponents  ;  new  centuries  were 
established,  but  no  addition  was  made  to  the  names  assigned  by  Rom'- 
ulus ;  so  that  henceforward  there  were  the  first  and  sectnd  Ram'nes, 
Titxes,  and  Luceres.  But  Tar'quin's  name  is  rendered  still  more  mem- 
orable by  the  stupendous  public  works  he  commenced  for  the  security 
and  improvement  of  the  city,  especially  the  great  sewers,  the  embank- 
ments of  the  Tiber  ;  the  foundation  of  the  city  walls,  the  porticoes  in 
the  forum,  and  the  racecourse  of  the  circus.  To  console  the  people 
under  their  toils,  he  instituted  the  great  or  Roman  games,  which  were 
celebrated  annually  in  September.  At  these  games  chariot-races  were 
for  the  first  time  displayed  at  Rome ;  they  were  so  highly  approved  by 
the  Roman  people,  that  they  became  the  most  popular  exhibition  on  all 
festive  occasions. 

Tarquin'ius  is  said  to  have  reigned  thirty-eight  years,  Avhen  he  was 
assassinated  by  the  agents  of  the  sons  of  An'cus  Mar'tius  (b.  c.  578), 
who  dreaded  that  he  would  bequeath  the  kingdom  to  his  son-in-law, 
Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  the  darling  of  the  Roman  people. 

Ser'vius  Tul'lius  for  some  days  concealed  the  fact  of  Tar'quin's 
death ;  but  when  he  had  secured  the  votes  of  the  people,  he  made  it 
public,  and  having  convened  an  assembly  to  elect  a  sovereign,  was 
unanimously  chosen  king.  In  the  old  legends,  the  birth  of  Ser'vius 
Tut'lius  is  described  as  equally  marvellous  and  humble.  His  mother 
was  said  to  have  been  a  captive  named  Ocresia  ;  his  father,  a  deity. 
While  yet  an  infant,  sleeping  in  the  cradle,  lambent  flames  playing 
round  his  forehead,  predicted  his  future  greatness ;  and  Tan'aquil,  en- 
couraged by  the  omen,  had  him  brought  up  in  the  palace  as  a  prince., 
and  gave  him  her  daughter  in  marriage.  Opposed  to  this  is  the  testi- 
mony of  the  emperor  Claudius  Caesar,  derived  from  lost  Tuscan  authori- 
ties. In  a  speech,  recommending  some  Lugdunensian  Gauls  for  ad- 
mission into  the  senate,  he  says,  "  Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  according  to  the 
Latin  authorities,  was  the  son  of  the  capti\e  Ocresia  ;  but  if  we  pay 
any  regard  to  the  Tuscans,  he  was  the  most  faithful  follower  of  Cca'les 
Viben'na,  and  a  sharer  in  his  varied  adventures.  When  harassed  by 
the  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  he  quitted  Etruria  with  the  remains  of  the 
army  that  Coe'les  had  commanded.  He  occupied  the  Coelian  mount, 
which  he  thus  named  in  honor  of  his  old  commander.  In  Tuscany  he 
was  called  Mastar'na,  but  he  exchanged  this  for  the  Roman  name  Ser'- 


806  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

vius  TuI'lius.  Having  been  chosen  king,  he  exercised  his  authority  te 
the  highest  advantage  of  the  state."  Though  Ser'vius  waged  several 
successful  wars,  his  military  fame  was  far  inferior  to  his  poUtical  glory  ; 
for  his  institutions  not  only  laid  the  foundation,  but  completed  uhe  frame- 
work of  the  future  republic.  He  formed  a  federal  union  between  the  Latin 
cities,  placing  Rome  at  the  head  of  the  league,  and  cemented  the  union  by 
instituting  common  sacrifices  for  the  united  states  on  Mount  Aventine.  Of 
still  greater  importance  was  his  institution  of  the  census,  or  record  of  the 
property  possessed  by  the  citizens,  and  his  distribution  of  the  right  of 
suffrage  {comilia  centuridta)  to  centuries  arranged  accordmg  to  the  prop- 
erty of  the  six  classes  into  which  the  census  divided  the  people.  All 
his  laws  were  designed  to  secure  free  and  equal  government,  and  an 
impartial  administration  of  justice.  His  wise  and  beneficent  laws 
were  received  by  the  patricians  with  suUenness  and  anger ;  they  were 
indignant  at  the  restraints  imposed  upon  their  tyranny  and  exactions  ; 
accordingly  they  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  Liicius  Tarquin'ius,  the 
son  of  the  late  monarch,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Ser'vius.  The 
plot  exploded  in  the  senate-house  :  the  aged  king  was  murdered,  and 
his  body  flung  into  the  streets  (b.  c.  535).  Tul'lia,  his  wicked  daughter 
in  her  haste  to  congratulate  Tar'quin  on  his  success,  drove  her  chariot 
over  her  father's  corpse,  and  proceeded  onward,  though  her  vest  was 
stained  with  his  blood. 

Tar'quin,  surnamed  the  Proud,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  pa- 
tricians, without  the  assent  of  the  people  being  asked.  In  the  history 
given  of  his  reign,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  separate  what  is  merely 
legendary  from  what  is  worthy  of  credit ;  but  it  seems  pretty  certain 
that  he  gratified  his  supporters  by  diminishing  the  privileges  of  the  ple- 
beian order,  and  that  he  soon  after  made  the  patricians  themselves  feel 
the  weight  of  his  tyranny.  He  confirmed  the  supremacy  of  Rome 
Dver  the  Latins,  united  the  Hernicans  to  the  confederation  by  treaty, 
and  gained  several  advantages  over  the  Vol'sci.  While  the  tyrant  was 
besieging  Ardea,  his  son  Sex'tus  violated  the  honor  of  Lucretia,  a 
noble  Roman  lady.  She  summoned  her  relatives,  and,  having  informed 
them  of  the  outrage,  committed  suicide.  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  who 
up  to  this  time  is  said  to  have  concealed  patriotic  resolutions  under  the 
mask  of  pretended  insanity,  though  he  held  an  important  magistracy, 
convoked  an  assembly  of  the  people,  and  exhibited  the  bleeding  body  of 
Lucretia  to  the  multitude  (b.  c.  509).  A  decree  was  immediately 
passed  for  expelling  the  Tar'quins  and  abolishing  royalty.  The  army 
sent  in  its  adhesion,  and  Tar'quin,  finding  himself  universally  sbmned, 
fled  into  Etruria. 

Section  HL — From  the  Establishment  of  the  Roman  Republic  to  the 
Burning  of  the  City  by  the  Gauls. 

FROM  B.  c.  509  TO  B.  c.  386. 

The  abolition  of  royalty  was  a  purely  patrician  revolution,  from 
which  the  great  body  of  the  people  gained  no  immediate  advantage. 
Two  annual  magistrates,  at  first  called  prajtors,  but  afterward  consuls, 
chosen  from  the  patrician  ranks,  inherited  the  entire  royal  power,  but  did 
aot,  lik3  the  kings,  possess  any  priestly  dignity.     The  first  magistrates 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  207 

elected  under  the  new  system  were  Brutus,  and  Collatinus,  the  hus- 
band of  Lucretia.  Scarcely  had  they  entered  on  their  office,  when 
ambassadors  arrived  from  Etruria  to  plead  the  cause  of  Tar'quin. 
Though  these  deputies  met  with  no  public  success,  they  were  enabled 
to  organize  a  conspiracy  among  the  younger  patricians,  who  had  shared 
in  the  tyrant's  debaucheries  ;  and  amoKg  the  accomplices  of  the  plot, 
were  the  sons  of  Brutus  and  the  nephews  of  Tar'quin.  The  plans  of 
the  conspirators  were  accidentally  overheard  by  a  slave,  concealed  in 
the  apartment  where  they  assembled,  and  information  of  the  treason 
given  to  the  consuls.  Public  duty  triumphed  over  parental  affection : 
Brutus  not  only  pronounced  sentence  of  death  upon  his  sons,  but  wit- 
nessed their  execution  without  shedding  a  tear.  The  property  of  the 
Tarquin'ii  was  confiscated ;  the  whole  family  condemned  to  perpetual 
banishment ;  and  the  consul,  Collatinus,  w  ose  relationship  to  the  late 
family  excited  suspicion,  was  included  in  the  sentence.  Pub'lius  Vale- 
rius was  elected  to  the  vacant  magistracy.  Soon  after,  in  an  engage- 
ment between  the  Etruscans  and  Romans,  An'cus  the  eldest  son  of 
Tar'quin,  and  Brutus,  fell  by  mutual  wounds ;  but  the  victory  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  young  republic. 

Valerius  delayed  some  time  before  proceeding  to  the  election  of  a 
new  colleague.  This  circumstance,  and  a  splendid  house  he  was 
erecting  on  one  of  the  Roman  hills,  inspired  a  suspicion  that  he  was 
aiming  at  royalty.  To  prove  his  innocence,  he  demolished  the  build- 
ing, proposed  laws  for  restraining  the  consular  power,  and  resigned  the 
ensigns  of  his  dignity  to  Spurius  Lucretius.  For  his  patriotic  conduct, 
Valerius  was  honored  with  the  surname  Pop'licola  [a  friend  of  the  peo- 
ple). In  the  following  year  Valerius  and  Horatius  were  chosen  con- 
suls, the  latter  of  whom  had  the  honor  of  dedicating  the  national  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  In  this  sanctuary  were  preserved  the 
Sibylline  oracles,  and  the  records  of  the  pontiffs  and  augurs. 

To  the  first  year  after  the  banishment  of  the  Tar'quins  belong  the 
celebrated  lex  de  provocatione  (law  of  appeal),  and  the  first  treaty 
between  Rome  and  Carthage.  The  patricians  had  always  the  right  of 
appeal  from  the  sentence  of  the  supreme  magistrate  to  the  general 
council  of  their  own  body :  a  similar  right  of  trial  by  their  peers  was 
secured  to  the  plebeians  by  the  law  of  Valerius  Pop'licola,  to  which 
the  senate  seems  to  have  yielded  a  very  ungracious  assent.*  The 
treaty  with  Carthage  shows  how  extensive  the  possessions  of  Rome 
had  been  under  the  monarchy:  Ardea,  An'tium,  Aricia,  Circeii,  and 
Terracina,  are  enumerated  as  subject  cities,  and  Rome  stipulates  for 
them  as  well  as  herself. 

From  these  historical  facts,  we  now  turn  to  a  legendary  narrative,  in 
which  truth  is  so  blended  with  fiction,  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
more  than  one  or  two  circumstances  on  which  any  reliance  can  be 
placed.  After  their  former  defeat,  the  Tarquin'ii  had  recourse  to  the 
aid  of  Lar  Porsen^na,  king  of  Cliisium,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Tus- 
can princes,  who  at  once  led  an  overwhelming  force  to  the  Janic'ulum 
a  fortified  hill  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tiber,  joined  to  the  city  by  a 

•  The  Valerian  law  was  imperfect  in  its  sanction;  there  wrs  no  other  penaltj 
to  enforce  il  than  the  declaration  that  he  who  violated  it  acted  wrongly. 


208  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

wooden  bridge.  The  Romans  were  defeated,  and  fled  over  the  bridge  , 
the  enemy  would  have  gained  admission  into  the  city  along  with  the 
fugitives,  had  not  Horatius  Cockles,  with  two  companions,  defended  the 
entrance  of  the  bridge  until  it  was  broken  down  behind  him,  when  he 
leaped  into  the  Tiber,  and  swam  safely  to  his  friends.  As  a  mark  of 
gratitude,  every  citizen,  during  the  famine  caused  by  the  subsequent 
sie^e,  brought  him  a  portion  of  provision ;  a  statue  was  erected  to  him 
at  the  expense  of  the  republic,  and  as  much  land  was  bestowed  upon 
him  as  he  could  plough  round  in  a  day.  Porsen'na  continuing  to 
blockade  the  city,  a  youth,  named  Caius  Mucins,  undertook,  with  the 
approbation  of  the  senate,  the  task  of  assassinating  the  invading  king. 
He  entered  the  camp  in  disguise,  but  slew  only  a  secretary  instead  of 
Porsen'na.  When  brought  before  that  monarch,  to  show  his  contempt 
for  tortures,  he  thrust  his  right  hand  into  a  fire  that  burned  upon  the 
altar,  and  held  it  there  until  it  was  consumed.  The  king,  admiring 
such  heroism,  gave  him  his  life  and  liberty :  Mucins,  in  gratitude, 
informed  him  that  three  hundred  Roman  youths  had  similarly  swon-i  his 
destruction ;  and  Porsen'na,  alarmed  for  his  life,  immediately  offered 
terms  of  peace  to  the  Romans.  In  memory  of  his  daring  exploit.  Mu- 
cins was  thenceforth  named  ScasVola  [hft-handcd),  and  was  rewarded 
as  munificently  as  Coc'les.  Hostages  were  given  by  the  Romans  for 
the  due  performance  of  the  treaty ;  and  the  legend  relates  that  one  of 
them,  a  noble  lady  named  Clce'lia,  won  the  admiration  of  Porsen'na  by 
escaping  from  her  guards,  and  swimming  on  horseback  over  the  Tiber, 
amid  a  shower  of  darts  hurled  at  her  by  her  baffled  pursuers.  The  aid 
which  the  Romans  subsequently  afforded  Porsen'na  when  he  was 
defeated  before  Aricia,  induced  him  to  render  back  the  territory  which 
had  been  yielded  to  him  as  part  of  the  price  of  the  peace. 

Thus  far  the  legend :  but  there  is  certain  evidence  that,  in  this  war, 
the  Romans  surrendered  their  city  and  became  tributary  to  the  Tus- 
cans, and  it  is  probable  that  they  embraced  the  opportunity  afforded 
them  by  the  defeat  of  Porsen'na  in  Latium,  to  regain  their  indepen- 
dence. 

A  war  with  the  Sabines,  who  wished  to  take  advantage  of  the  weak- 
ened condition  of  the  republic,  followed.  It  was  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  migration  of  At'tus  Clausus,  a  noble  Sabine,  with  all  the  mem- 
bers and  clients  of  his  house,  to  Rome.  There  he  changed  his  name 
to  Ap'pius  Claudius,  and  founded  one  of  the  most  distinguished  fami- 
lies of  the  republic.  Though  they  lost  their  able  leader,  Pop''licola, 
the  Romans  were  victorious  in  three  successive  campaigns ;  and  the 
Sabines  were  forced  to  purchase  peace  with  corn,  money,  and  a  part 
of  their  lands. 

Tar'quin's  son-in-law,  Mamil'lus,  induced  the  Latins  to  arm  them- 
selves in  behalf  of  the  exiled  king,  taking  advantage  of  the  violent  dis- 
putes that  raged  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  respecting  the 
law  of  debt.  Ever  since  the  expulsion  of  the  king,  the  Roman  nobles, 
after  the  abolition  of  royalty,  had,  by  a  series  of  iniquitous  measures, 
usurped  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  conquered  lands,  which  they 
leased  out  to  the  plebeians.  Having  thus  the  monopoly  of  the  only 
nroperty  existing  at  the  period,  they  became  the  sole  capitalists  of  the 
republic,  and  lent  out  money  at  an  exorbitant  rate  of  usury.     By  the 


ROMAN   IIEPUBLIU.  209 

Roman  faw,  those  who  were  unable  to  discharge  their  debts  became 
slav'es  10  their  creditors  {nrxi),  and  were  subj'^ct  to  whatever  punish- 
ment barbarous  masters  pleased  to  inflict.  Goaded  to  madness  by  theii 
wrongs,  the  plebeians  refused  to  enlist  in  defence  of  their  country  until 
iheir  grievances  were  redressed.  The  reasonable  demands  of  the  peo- 
ple were  strenuously  supported  in  the  senate  by  Mar'cus  Valerius,  the 
brother  of  Pop'licola  ;  but  they  were  obstinately  opposed  by  Ap'pius 
Claudius,  whose  haughty  and  selfish  counsels  had  a  predominant  effect 
on  a  short-sighted  aristocracy.  After  long  delay  it  was  resolved  to 
elect  a  single  supreme  magistrate,  with  the  title  of  dictator,  and  invest 
him  with  absolute  authority  (b.  c.  497).  The  people  assented  to  the 
law ;  and  Titus  Lar'tius,  one  of  the  consuls,  was  apj,x)inted  to  the  new 
office.  After  having  ravaged  the  territories  of  the  enemy,  he  dismissed 
all  his  prisoners  vv^ithout  ransom ;  and  this  generosity  so  gratified  the 
Latins,  that  they  agreed  upon  a  suspension  of  arms. 

When  the  truce  was  expired,  war  again  commenced,  and  the  senate 
again  appointed  a  dictator.  Aulus  Posthumius,  the  second  dictator, 
encountered  the  Latins  at  the  lake  of  RegiFlus,  and  inflicted  on  them 
a  decisive  defeat.  Tar'quin,  thus  frustrated  in  his  last  hope,  retired  to 
Cuma;,  in  Campania,  where  he  soon  after  died  in  exile. 

While  Tarquin'ius  excited  alarm,  and  the  wars  with  Latium  and  Etrii- 
ria  continued,  the  senate  ruled  with  some  show  of  justice  and  modera- 
tion. But  when  danger  was  passed,  the  patriciaii-?  began  to  treat  the 
plebeians  as  slaves.  To  the  palace  of  every  noble  was  attached  a  pris- 
on for  debtors ;  and,  in  seasons  of  distress,  after  the  sittings  of  the 
courts,  herds  of  sentenced  slaves  were  led  away  in  chains  to  the  private 
jails  of  the  patricians.  At  length  the  plebeian  armies,  after  having 
been  frequently  deceived  by  false  promises,  deserted  their  officers  in 
he  very  midst  of  war,  and  marched  in  a  body  to  a  hill  called  Mons  Sa- 
cer,  on  the  river  A'nio,  within  three  miles  of  Rome,  where  they  were 
joined  by  vast  multitudes  of  their  discontented  brethren  (b.  c.  493). 
The  patricians  and  their  clients  took  up  arms  ;  their  numbers  were  not 
contemptible  ;  but,  unaccustomed  to  militaiy  service,  they  dared  not  en- 
counter a  peasantry  inured  to  warfare.  The  pressure  of  foreign  enemies 
rendered  an  accommodation  necessary  ;  ten  senators  were  sent  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace  with  the  plebeians,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which 
all  the  contracts  of  insolvent  debtors  were  cancelled,  those  who  had  been 
reduced  to  slavery  were  set  at  liberty,  the  Valerian  laws  were  restoreeJ 
to  tlieir  former  eflicacy,  and  five  annual  magistrates  were  chosen  to  watch- 
over  the  rights  of  the  people,  whose  persons  were  declared  to  be  invi- 
olable. In  the  same  year  a  league  was  made  with  the  Latins,  not,  as  be- 
fore, on  the  basis  of  Roman  superiority,  but  on  terms  of  perfect  equality. 
A  similar  federation  was  subsequently  made  with  the  Hernicans ;  and 
both  these  treaties  prove  indisputably,  that  the  disturbances  produced  by 
aristocratic  tyranny,  subsequent  to  the  abolition  of  royalty,  had  seriously 
diminished  the  Roman  power. 

These  losses  began  to  be  retrieved  by  successful  wars  against  the 
^quians  and  Volscians.  The  common  histories  of  this  period  are  fuU 
of  extraordinary  difllculties  and  contradictions;  the  accounts  extracted 
from  them  must,  therefore,  be  received  with  the  suspicion  that  necessa- 
rily attaches  to  all  traditionary  legends.     We  are  informed,  that  the  sue* 

14 


210  AN  JIENT  HISTORY, 

cess  of  ihe  Volscian  war  was  mainly  owing  to  a  young  nobleman,  Caius 
Mar'ciuSjWho  acquired  the  surname  of  Coriolanus,  from  his  conduct  at 
the  capture  of  Corioli.  Soon  after,  Rome  suffered  grievously  by  a  fam- 
ine ;  but  a  Sicilian  prince,  hearing  of  the  dearth,  sent  a  large  supply  of 
corn  to  relieve  the  distresses  of  the  citizens.  Coriolanus  proposed  in 
the  senate  that  this  corn  should  not  be  distributed  to  the  poor  until  the 
plebeians  had  resigned  all  the  privileges  they  had  acquired  by  their  re- 
cent secession.  For  this  detestable  attempt  he  was  impeached  by  the 
tribunes  (b.  c.  490),  and  brought  to  trial  before  that  form  of  assembly 
icomitia  tiihuta),  in  which  the  plebeians  had  the  superiority,  lie  was 
condemned  to  exile,  and  in  his  rage  joined  the  Vol'sci.  Guided  by  his 
superior  talents,  the  Volscians  defeated  the  Romans  in  every  engage- 
ment, and  at  length  laid  siege  to  the  city.  Rome  must  have  fallen,  had 
not  Veturia  the  mother,  and  Volumniathe  wife  of  Coriolanus,  prevailed 
upon  the  enraged  exile  to  grant  his  countrymen  terms  of  peace.  On 
his  return  to  the  Volscian  territories  he  was  put  to  death  in  a  tumult 
raised  by  Attius  Tul'lius,  a  celebrated  chief  of  the  Vol'sci,  who  envied 
the  fame  of  Coriolanus,  and  persuaded  his  countrymen  that  the  illustri- 
ous exile  had  betrayed  them.  An  opposing  tradition  is  recorded  by 
several  historians,  namely,  that  Coriolanus  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age, 
and  often  used  to  exclaim,  "  How  miserable  is  the  state  of  an  old  man 
in  banishment !"  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  which  deserves  the  great- 
er credit ;  but  it  is  sufficiently  manifest  that  the  history  of  Coriolanus  is 
not  to  be  received  without  a  considerable  share  of  skepticism. 

The  Vol'sci,  after  the  death  of  Coriolanus,  lost  rapidly  all  the  advan- 
tages they  had  acquired,  and  were  besides  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
iE'qui,  their  former  allies.  But  the  Romans  could  not  avail  themselves 
of  these  favorable  circumstances,  being  harassed  by  disputes  respecting 
the  agrarian  law  proposed  by  Spiirius  Cas'sius.  The  general  purport 
of  the  law  was,  that  lands  conquered  from  the  enemy  should  be  divided 
into  small  estates,  and  assigned  to  the  plebeians,  instead  of  being  leased 
out  in  large  portions  to  the  patricians.  This  appears  to  have  been  mere- 
ly a  revival  of  the  ancient  constitution  of  Servius,  and  was  obviously 
based  in  equity ;  for  no  persons  bad  a  better  claim  to  the  public  lands 
than  those  by  whose  valor  and  labors  they  had  been  acquired.  The 
senate  and  patricians  obstinately  opposed  a  project  that  threatened  to 
destroy  the  source  of  their  profits  ;  and  Spiirius  Cas'sius,  in  his  anxiety 
to  accomplish  his  great  objects,  is  said  to  have  aimed  at  royalty.  He 
was  brought  to  trial  on  this  charge  before  the  collective  body  of  the  pa- 
tricians, which  has  been  oy  later  writers  confounded  with  the  general 
assembly  of  the  people  (b.  c.  484).  He  was  convicted,  and  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock.  Another  account  of  the  death  of  Cas'sius  has 
been  given  by  some  historians  not  unworthy  of  credit.  They  inform 
us  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  his  own  father  as  a  traitor  to  his  order. 

There  are  few  circumstances  in  Roman  history  more  remarkable  than 
that  during  seven  consecutive  years  (from  b.  c.  483  to  b.  c.  479),one  of 
the  seats  in  the  consulship  was  held  by  some  member  oi  the  Ftbian 
family.  This  arose  from  the  powerful  sup^wrt  wliich  that  family  gave  to 
the  older  patrician  houses  in  their  offort  to  monopolize  the  chief  digni- 
ties. Civil  dissensions  were  thus  aggravated  ;  the  populace  demanded 
an  agrarian  law  ;  the  minoj.-  patrician  houses  clamored  for  a  share  in  the 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  21  i 

honors  of  the  state  ;  and  the  senate  could  only  evade  the  difficulty  by 
keeping  the  nation  constantly  involved  in  war.  At  length  the  soldiers 
refused  to  conquer  ;  and  Cse'so  Fubius  had  the  mortification  to  see  a 
certain  victory  wrested  from  his  hands  by  the  determination  of  his  fol- 
lowers not  to  pursue  their  advantages.  This  unexpected  disgrace  had 
such  an  effect  on  the  Fubii,  that  they  resolved  to  conciliate  the  favor  of 
the  commonalty,  and  declared  themselves  the  patrons  of  popular  meas- 
ures. They  thus  lost  the  favor  of  the  senate  ;  and  though  the  affection 
of  the  soldiers  enabled  them  to  acquire  military  glory,  they  were  unable 
to  cairy  any  of  the  measures  that  they  advocated.  Weary  of  disap- 
pointment, they  resolved  to  establish  a  cofony  of  the  members  of  theijr 
family,  their  clients,  and  dependants,  on  the  frontiers,  to  guard  the  Ro- 
man territories  from  the  Vireir'tes.  The  number  of  persons  capable  of 
bearing  arms  mustered  by  this  single  house  amounted  to  three  hundred 
and  six.  They  took  post  on  the  Crem'era, where  they  were  all  cut  off' 
by  the  Etrurians  (b.  c.  476).  It  is  said  that  only  one  young  man  of  the 
Fabii  escaped  Irom  this  ruin  of  his  family,  and  became  the  progenitor 
of  a  new  race  ;  but  this  is  manifestly  an  exaggeration. 

The  Etruscans,  following  up  their  success,  advanced  within  sight  of 
Rome,  formed  a  camp  on  the  Janic'ulum,  ravaged  both  sides  of  the  river, 
and  crowded  the  city  with  fugitives.  The  consuls,  Virgin'ius  and  Ser- 
vil'ius,  at  length  attacked  the  enemy  in  different  quarters,  and,  after  a 
desperate  battle,  forced  them  to  retreat.  From  this  time  fortune  began 
to  favor  the  Romans,  probably  on  account  of  the  Etrurians  being  engaged 
in  war  with  HIero,  Idng  of  Syracuse  ;  and  peace  was  at  length  conclu- 
ded for  forty  years  (b.  c.  470).  Niebuhr  conjectures,  with  apparent 
plausibility,  that  it  was  at  this  time  the  Romans  recovered  the  territory 
of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  Porsen'na. 

In  the  year  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  Cneius  Gemicius,  trib- 
une of  the  people,  impeached  the  consuls,  Fiirius  and  Man'lius,  before 
the  general  assembly  of  the  commonalty,  for  refusing  to  give  effect  to 
the  agi-arian  law.  The  consuls  made  a  feeble  defence  ;  and  the  patri- 
cians, failing  to  bribe  or  intimidate  the  bold  tribune,  had  him  assassin- 
ated. Taknig  advantage  of  the  consternation  produced  by  this  daring 
crime,  the  consuls  ordered  a  general  levy,  intending  to  divert  the  peo- 
ple from  their  purpose  of  engaging  them  in  foreign  war.  This  plan 
would  have  succeeded,  had  not  the  refusal  of  one  man,  Vol'ero  Pub'lius, 
to  serve  in  the  ranks,  after  having  previously  held  the  commission  of 
centurion,  led  to  a  fierce  commotion,  which  frustrated  the  consular  plans. 
Vol'ero,  being  chosen  tribune  by  his  countrymen,  instead  of  seeking 
personal  revenge,  by  impeaching  the  consuls,  struck  a  fatal  blow  at  the 
supremacy  of  the  patrician  faction,  by  transferring  the  election  of  the 
tribunes  from  the  centuries  to  the  tribes,  and  establishing  the  right  of 
the  general  assembly  of  the  commonalty  to  deliberate  on  all  matters 
affecting  the  common  weal,  which  should  be  brought  before  them  by  the 
tribunes  ;  a  law  which  was  in  effect  the  same  as  the  establishment  of 
the  liberty  of  the  press  in  our  own  days.  While  these  laws  were  undei 
discussion,  the  consul,  Ap'pius  Claudius,  was  pre-eminently  distinguish- 
ed by  his  opposition  to  the  popular  claims  ;  and  when  they  were  extort- 
<jd  from  the  senate,  he  unwisely  vented  his  dissatisfaction  on  the  army 
that  "le  led  against  the  Vol'sci.     His  soldiers,  in  revenge,  fled  beforf 


212  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  enemy.  Ap'pius  punished  them  by  decimation,  putting  every  tenllj 
man  to  death.  When  his  year  of  office  expired,  he  was  impeached 
capitally  for  such  atrocious  vengeance ;  but  he  escaped  the  penalty  of 
his  tyranny  by  committing  suicide. 

For  several  years  the  Roman  history  presents  little  more  than  a  rep- 
etition of  the  struggles  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  ;  desultory 
wars  with  the  jEqui  and  Vol'sci ;  and  a  succession  of  physical  calam- 
ities, uniting  the  horrors  of  plague,  pestilence,  and  famine.  Ap'pius 
Herdonius,  a  Sabine  adventurer,  took  advantage  of  these  circumstances, 
and  one  night  surprised  and  seized  the  capitol  with  an  army  of  about 
four  thousand  men,  composed  of  outlaws  and  slaves  (b.  c.  459).  In- 
stigated by  the  tribunes,  the  people  refused  to  take  up  arms  unless  secu- 
rity was  given  that  their  grievances  should  be  redressed  ;  particularly 
insisting  on  the  legal  restriction  of  the  consular  power  by  a  written 
code,  according  to  the  proposal  of  Terentil'lus  {lex  Terentillu)  a  few 
months  before.  The  consul  Valerius  promised  compliance  ;  and  the 
people  stormed  the  capitol,  slew  Herdonius,  and  punished  his  associ- 
ates :  but  Valerius  having  fallen  in  the  assault,  the  senate  refused  to 
fulfil  the  conditions  he  had  stipulated. 

During  the  iEquian  war  (b.  c.  457),  a  consular  army  was  intercepted 
by  the  enemy  in  the  defiles  of  Mount  iE'gidus,  and  so  closely  blockaded, 
that  there  seemed  no  choice  between  death  or  disgraceful  submission. 
Some  horsemen,  breaking  through  the  hostile  lines,  brought  the  news  to 
Rome ;  and  the  senate,  in  alarm,  resolved  to  create  a  dictator.  Their 
choice  fell  upon  Titus  Qiiinc'tius  Cincinnatus,  a  patrician  violently  op- 
posed to  the  popular  claims,  but  celebrated  for  personal  integrity.  His 
son  Cae'so  had  recently  fled  from  Rome  to  escape  a  trial  for  high  crimes 
and  misdemeanors  ;  and  Cincinnatus  had  been  reduced  to  great  pecu- 
niary distress  by  being  compelled  to  pay  the  surety  he  had  given  for 
his  son's  appearance.  The  dictator  delivered  the  consul  Miniicius  and 
the  army  from  their  danger ;  but  before  resigning  office  he  used  the 
absolute  power  vdth  which  he  was  invested,  to  recall  his  son  Cae'so 
from  banishment,  and  drive  his  accuser  into  exile.  There  is,  indeed, 
some  reas^m  to  believe,  that  the  dictatorship  of  Cincinnatus,  which  has 
been  so  much  lauded,  was  a  mere  artifice  to  baffle  the  demand  of  the 
people  for  a  written  code  of  laws.  It,  however,  failed  of  success  :  the 
tribunes'  succeeded  in  getting  their  numbers  increased  from  five  to  ten : 
Sic'ciu"  Dentatus,  a  veteran  plebeian  of  approved  valor,  stimulated  his 
order  to  fresh  exertions  in  behalf  of  their  freedom ,  and  at  length  the 
senate  vielded  a  reluctant  assent  to  the  formation  of  a  code. 

Ambassadors  having  been  sent  to  the  principal  Grecian  states  and 
colonies  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  best  codes  of  celebrated  legis- 
lators, on  their  return,  ten  persons,  hence  called  decemviri,  were  chosen, 
wi*h  consular  power,  to  arrange  and  digest  a  body  of  laws.  A  new 
constitution  was  established,  known  in  history  as  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  which  continued,  down  to  the  time  of  the  emperors,  to  be  the 
basis  of  all  civil  and  penal  jurisprudence.  It  established  the  legal  equality 
of  all  the  citizens  ;  but  it  preserved  some  of  the  most  odious  privileges 
of  the  aristocracy,  especially  the  exclusive  eligibility  to  the  consulship, 
and  it  prohibited  the  intermarriage  of  patricians  and  plebeians  (b.  c. 
4j0).     The  patricians,  hoping  to  procure  some  modification  in  laws 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC. 


213 


which  they  regarded  as  ruinous  to  their  interests,  and  the  pleheians, 
gratified  by  the  advantages  they  had  obtained,  united  to  continue  the 
decemviral  authority  for  another 'year.  The  decem'virs,  now  secure  of 
power,  threw  off  the  mask,  grievously  oppressed  the  people,  and  treach- 
erously betrayed  old  Sic'cius  Dentatus,  whose  approved  valor  they 
dreaded,  to  the  enemy.  At  length  Ap'pius,  one  of  their  number,  at- 
tempted  to  make  Vir'ginia,  the  daughter  of  a  brave  officer,  the  victim  of 
his  lust,  by  illegally  assigning  her  as  a  slave  to  one  of  his  creatures. 
Her  father,  Vir'ginius,  slew  the  girl  in  the  public  court  to  save  her  from 
dishonor,  and,  atded  by  her  lover  Icil'ius,  raised  such  a  «torm  against 
the  decemvirs,  that  they  were  forced  to  resign  their  office,  and  the 
ancient  forms  of  govenmient  were  restored.  The  tribimician  power 
was  not  only  re-established,  but  formidably  increased  by  a  law  of  the 
consul  Valerius  (b.  c.  446),  which  invested  the  votes  of  the  commons 
witli  the  force  of  laws.* 

Civil  commotions  were  renewed  in  consequence  of  the  exertions  made 
by  the  tribune  Canuleius  to  abolish  the  law  against  intermarriages,  and 
to  open  the  consulship  to  plebeians.     The  repeal  of  the  marriage-law 
was   conceded,  after  a  difficult  struggle  (b.   c.  445)  ;  and  the  second 
popular  demand  was  evaded  by  transferring  the  consular  power  to  the 
annual  commanders  of  the  legions,!  who  were  to  be  six  in  number,  and 
one  half  chosen  from  the  people  (b.  c.  443).     But  even  this  concession 
was  for  some  time  evaded  by  the  senate,  under  the  pretence  of  informal- 
ities in  the  election   of  those  officers.     Soon   afterward  (b.   c.  442), 
new  magistrates,  called  censors,  were  chosen,  not  only  to  regulate  the 
taking  of  the  census,  but  also  to  superintend  public  morals  ;  a  power 
that  soon  enabled  these  magistrates  to  take  rank  among  the  very  highest 
dignitaries  of  the  state.     These  changes,  however,  did  not  conciliate 
the  people,  and  a  severe  famine  (b.  c.  438)  aggravated  their  discontent. 
In  the  midst  of  this  distress,  Spurius  Mai'lius,  a  plebeian  knight,  pur- 
chased with  his  private  fortune  a  large  quantity  of  corn  in  Tuscany, 
which  he  distributed  gratuitously  to  the  people.     His  object  probably 
was  to  become  the  first  plebeian  consul,   which  laudable  object  the 
patricians  perverted  into  the  crime  of  aiming  at  the  sovereignty.     They 
therefore   appointed  Cincinnatus  dictator,  who    at  once  sent  Spurius 
Ahala   his  master  of  the  horse,  to.  summon  Ma;'lius  before  his  tribunal. 
The  knight  was  standing  unarmed  in  the  forum  when  thus  called  upon 
to  take  his   trial ;  he  showed  some  reluctance   to   obey  the  dictator's 
command,  and  was-  cut  down  by  Ahala.     The  old  dictator  applauded  this 
murder  of  a  defenceless  man  as  an  act  of  patriotism  ;  but  the  people 
took  a  different  view  of  the  transaction,  and  Ahala  only  escaped  con- 
demnation by  voluntary  exile. 

While  these  commotions  raged  in  the  city,  the  Romans  were  engaged 
in  desultory  wars  against  the  Sabines,  the  iEquians,  and  the  Volscians, 
which  generally  terminated  to  the  advantage  of  the  republic,  though 
they  led  to  no  decisive  result.  A  more  important  affair  was  the  wax 
against  Veii,  provoked  by  Lar  Tolum'nius,  king  of  the  Veien'tes,  who 
put  to  death  the  Roman  ambassadors  to  the  people  of  Fidense.  Satis- 
faction being  refused  for  this  outrage  (b.  c.  404),  the  Romans  came  to 

•  Lex  Valf  ria  ;  ut  quod  tributim  plebes  jussisset,  populum  teneret. 
)  TribanJ  .uilituin  cousulari  potestate. 


314  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  resolution  of  destroying  Veii,  which,  being  the  richest  city  of 
Etruria,  had  long  been  a  dangerous  rival  of  their  republic.  To  effect 
this  object,  it  Avas  necessary  to  have  a  permanent  standing  army ;  and 
a  property-tax  was  levied  to  supply  payment  for  the  troops.  After  the 
blockade  and  siege  had  continued  nearly  ten  years,  Fiirius  Camil'lus, 
who  had  distinguished  himself  by  defeating  the  Etrurian  armies  that 
attempted  to  aid  the  Vftien'tes,  was  chosen  dictator.  By  his  directions 
a  mine  was  constructed  from  the  Roman  camp  into  the  Veientine  citadel, 
through  which  an  entrance  was  obtained,  and  Veii  taken  (b.  c.  395). 
Its  riches  were  shared  by  the  soldiers,  its  inhabitants  enslaved  or  held 
to  ransom,  and  the  images  of  its  gods  transferred  to  Rome. 

Notwithstanding  his  great  services,  Camil'lus  was  condemned  to  exile 
on  the  charge  of  having  embezzled  part  of  the  plunder  of  Veii ;  but 
scarcely  had  he  departed,  when  the  Romans  were  involved  in  the  most 
calamitous  war  that  has  yet  occurred  in  their  history.  The  barbarous 
Gauls,  having  crossed  the  Alps  in  numerous  hordes,  laid  waste  the  fer- 
tile fields  of  Etruria,  and  besieged  the  important  city  of  Clusium.  The 
Etrurians  sought  aid  from  the  Romans,  who  sent  some  of  the  young 
nobility  to  remonstrate  with  the  Eren'nus,  or  chieftain  of  the  Gauls. 
This  barbarous  chieftain  treated  the  deputies  with  such  scorn,  that,  for- 
getting their  sacred  character,  they  entered  the  besieged  city,  and  joined 
in  a  sally  of  the  garrison.  The  Bren'nus,  enraged  at  such  a  violation 
of  the  law  of  nations,  demanded  satisfaction  from  the  senate  ;  and  when 
this  was  relused,  broke  up  his  camp,  and  marched  direct  against  Rome. 
A  body  of  troops,  hastily  levied  to  repel  the  invasion,  took  post  on  the 
river  Al'lia,  about  eleven  miles  from  Rome  (b.  c.  389).  In  the  very 
commencement  of  the  engagement,  the  Romans,  seized  with  sudden 
panic,  broke  and  fled  ;  they  were  pursued  with  dreadful  slaughter  to  their 
very  gates  ;  and  had  not  the  victors  paused  to  gather  the  spoil,  an  end 
would  have  been  put  to  the  Roman  name  and  nation. 

To  defend  the  city  of  Rome  against  such  an  enemy  was  impossible ; 
it  was  therefore  resolved  to  place  the  best  troops  as  a  garrison  in  the 
citadel,  supplying  them  with  whatever  provisions  remained  in  the  city, 
while  the  mass  of  the  population  should  seek  refuge  in  the  neighboring 
towns.  The  priests  and  principal  objects  of  religious  reverence  were 
removed  to  the  old  Pelasgic  city,  Cae're  Agyl'la.  About  eighty  of  the 
chief  pontiffs  and  patricians,  probably  devoting  themselves,  according  to 
the  superstition  of  the  age,  for  the  safety  of  .the  republic,  remained 
quietly  sitting  on  their  curule  chairs  in  the  forum.  When  the  Gauls 
entered  the  city,  they  were  amazed  to  find  it  deserted  :  pursuing  their 
march,  they  entered  the  forum,  and  slew  those  whom  they  found  there. 
They  then  laid  siege  to  the  capitol ;  but  soon  became  weary  of  so 
tedious  a  task,  especially  after  their  attempt  to  take  the  citadel  by 
storm  had  been  frustrated  by  the  cackling  of  the  sacred  geese  kept  in 
the  temple  of  Juno,  and  the  valor  of  Mar'cus  Man'lius.  They  finally 
agreed  to  quit  the  city,  on  receiving  a  ransom  of  one  thousand  pounds* 
weight  of  gold.  According  to  the  ordinary  legend,  Camil'lus,  recalled 
from  banishment  by  a  hasty  decree  of  the  people  assembled  at  Veii, 
appeared  with  an  army  while  the  gold  was  being  weighed,  defeated  the 
Gauls,  and  liberated  his  country.  Polyb'ius,  a  Greek  historian,  gives 
a  much  more  probable  account.     He  says,  that  the  Gauls  returned  home 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  21? 

to  protect  their  own  countiy  from  an  invasion  of  the  VeTi'eti,  and  intii 
mates  that  they  bore  off  their  plunder  without  interruption. 

Section  IV. — From  the  Rebuilding  of  the  City  to  the  first  Punic  War. 
FROM    B.  C.  388    TO    B.  c.  264. 

So  helpless  was  Rome  after  the  departure  of  the  Gauls,  that  it  was 
exposed  to  repeated  insults  from  the  neighboring  townships,  which  had 
hitherto  been  subject  to  its  sway.  The  citizens  looked  forward  with 
dismay  to  the  task  of  rebuilding  their  walls  and  houses  ;  they  clamored 
for  an  immediate  removal  to  Veii,  and  were  with  difficulty  prever.;ed 
from  accomplishmg  their  purpose  by  the  firmness  of  Camil'lus.  While 
the  subject  was  under  discussion,  a  lucky  omen,  probably  preconcerted, 
decided  the  irresolute.  Just  as  a  senator  was  rising  to  speak,  a  centu- 
rion, coming  with  his  compasiy  to  relieve  guard,  gave  the  usual  word 
of  command :  "  Ensign,  plant  your  colors  ;  this  is  the  best  place 
TO  stay  in  !"*  The  senators  rushed  out  of  the  temple  exclaiming, 
"  A  happy  omen  :  the  gods  have  spoken — we  obey."  T  ie  multitude 
caught  the  enthusiasm,  and  exclaimed  with  one  voice,  "  Rome  for 
EVER  !" 

Under  the  prudent  guidance  of  Camil'lus,  the  military  strength  of 
Rome  was  renewed,  and  the  states  which  had  triumphed  in  the  recent 
humiliation  of  the  city  were  forced  again  to  recognise  its  superiority. 
Mau'lius,  the  brave  defender  of  the  capitol,  finding  himself  excluded 
from  office  by  the  jealousy  of  his  brother  patricians,  declared  himself 
the  patron  of  the  plebeians.  This  revived  the  old  dissensions  with  all 
their  former  virulence.  Camil'lus  was  appointed  dictator;  and  by  his 
orders  Man'lius  was  brought  to  trial,  convicted  of  treason,  and  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock  (b.  c.  382).  A  plague,  which  burst  forth  soon 
after,  was  popularly  attributed  to  the  anger  of  the  gods  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  hero  who  had  saved  their  temples  from  pollution.  By  their 
triumph  over  Man'lius,  and  their  steadiness  in  opposing  popular  claims, 
the  patricians  acquired  such  strength,  that  the  populace  became  over- 
awed, and  the  commons  ceased  to  display  the  spirit  and  courage  they 
had  previously  shown  in  their  contests  with  the  nobles.  "  Rome  wa,;' 
on  the  point  of  degenerating  into  a  miserable  oligarchy ;  her  name  in 
the  utmost  we  should  have  known  of  her,  had  not  her  irretrievable  de- 
cline been  arrested  at  the  moment  by  the  appearance  of  two  men,  who 
changed  the  fate  of  their  country  and  of  the  world."  f 

The  renovators  of  the  constitution  were  Caius  Licin'ius  Stolo,  and 
Lucius  Seu'tius  Lateranus.  They  were  aided  in  their  patriotic  labors 
by  Mar'cus  Fabius  Ambus'tus,  a  patrician,  the  father-in-law  of  Licin'- 
ius,  who  is  said  to  have  favored  the  popular  cause  to  gratify  the  ambi- 
tion of  a  favorite  daughter.  There  were  three  rogations,  or  bills, 
brought  forward  by  Licin'ius  :  the  first  opened  the  consulship  to  the 
plebeians ;  the  second  prohibited  any  person  from  renting  more  than 
five  hundred  acres  of  public  land,  and  forbade  any  individual  to  feed  on 
a  common  pasturage  more  than  one  hundred  of  large,  and  five  hundred 
of  small  cattle.     It  also  fixed  the  rents  of  the  public  lands  at  the  tentii 

•  Hie  manebiiaus  optime.  f  Niebuhr. 


316  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  the  corn  produce  (frnges),  and  a  fifth  of  the  produce  of  vines,  aloea^ 
and  other  fruit-trees.  The  third  rogation  proposed  tliat,  in  all  cases  of 
outstanding  debts,  all  the  interest  which  had  been  paid  should  be  de- 
ducted from  the  capital,  and  the  balance  paid  by  equal  annual  instal- 
ments in  three  years.  The  patricians  protracted  their  resistance  to 
ihese  laws  during  five  years,  using  every  means  of  force  and  fraud  in 
their  power  to  frustrate  the  designs  of  Licin'ius.  At  length  the  people 
took  arms,  and  occupied  Mount  Aventine.  Camil'lus,  being  chosen 
dictator,  saw  that  nothing  but  concession  could  avert  the  horrors  of  a 
civil  war ;  and  the  senate  allowed  the  thrt^^  bills  to  become  law 
(b.  c.  366),  stipulating  only  that  the  consuls  should  no  longer  act  as 
civil  judges,  and  that  new  magistrates  should  be  chosen,  with  the  title 
of  prfetors,  to  exercise  judicial  functions.  The  plebeians  having  once 
made  good  their  claim  to  the  consulship,  acquired  successively,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  participation  in  the  other  high  offices  of  state  •  the 
lictatorship  was  opened  to  them  b.  c.  353  ;  the  censorship,  b.  c.  b-tS  ; 
the  proetorship,  b.  c.  334  ;  and  even  the  priestly  office,  b.  c.  300. 

During  these  civic  struggles  the  Romans  maintained  their  reputation 
abroad  by  several  victories  over  their  enemies,  especially  the  Gauls 
and  the  Etrurians.  But  they  were  soon  engaged  in  a  more  important 
struggle  with  the  Samnites  ;  and  this  contest,  which  lasted,  with  little 
intermission,  more  than  half  a  century,  opened  a  way  for  the  subjuga- 
tion of  souihern  Italy,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Rome's  future  great- 
ness. The  Samnites  having  invaded  Campania,  the  people  of  Cap'ua, 
to  ward  oil'  impending  danger,  declared  themselves  subjects  of  Rome. 
Ambassadors  being  sent  to  warn  the  Samnites  against  invading  the 
new  province,  the  Samnites  treated  their  remonstrances  with  contempt, 
and  war  was  immediately  declared.  It  was  carried  on  slowly  at  first, 
but  generally  to  the  advantage  of  the  Romans,  until  the  Samnites 
sought  terms  of  truce.  During  this  interval  the  Latins  attacked  the 
Samnites,  who  requested  assistance  from  their  recent  enemies,  and 
orders  were  issued  by  the  senate  that  the  Latins  should  desist  from 
hostilities.  These  commands  being  disobeyed,  war  was  declared 
against  the  Latins,  and  the  conduct  of  it  intrusted  to  the  consuls  Man'- 
lius  and  Decius.  To  prevent  the  confusion  which  miglit  arise  between 
armies  speaking  the  same  language,  Man'lius  commanded  that  no  Ro- 
man soldier  should  quit  his  ranks  under  pain  of  death  (b.  c.  330).  The 
consul's  own  son,  challenged  to  single  combat  by  a  commander  of  the 
enemy,  disobeyed  these  orders,  and  was  instantly  sent  to  execution  by 
the  stern  father.  In  the  engagement  which  ensued,  the  Romans  were 
on  the  point  of  being  routed,  until  Decius,  the  plebeian  consul,  devoting 
himseli",  according  to  the  superstitions  of  the  age,  for  the  good  of  his 
country,  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  and  fell  covered  with 
wounds.  The  soldiers,  now  persuaded  that  the  gods  had  been  concil- 
iated, renewed  the  fight  with  enthusiastic  confidence,  and  the  Latins 
were  completely  defeated.  The  Romans  followed  up  their  success 
with  so  much  spirit  during  the  three  ensuing  campaigns,  that  all  La- 
tium  and  Campania  were  subdued,  and  annexed  as  provinces  to  the 
territory  of  the  republic. 

These  great  advantages  gained  by  their  rivals,  alarmed  tiie  Sam- 
nites ;  many  also  of  tue  states  in  southern  Italy,  especially  the  Luca« 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC,  217 

nians  and  Tarentines,  became  jealous  of  the  risijg  greatness  of  Rome 
Papir'ius  Cur'sor  was  appointed  dictator  to  crush  this  dangerous  con- 
federacy :  he  gained  several  victories  over  the  Samnites  ;  and  these 
successes  being  improved  by  the  generals  that  followed  him,  reduced 
the  enemies  so  low,  that  they  were  once  more  forced  to  solicit  a  ces- 
sation of  arms  (b.  c.  321).  But  these  peaceful  appearances  lasted  only 
a  few  months  :  Pon'tius,  an  able  SamnUc  general,  stimulated  his  coun- 
trymen to  renew  the  war,  and  bade  deliance  to  the  Roman  power.  The 
consuls  Veturius  and  Posthumius  were  sent  with  i  large  army  to  in- 
vade Sam'nium  (b.  c.  320) ;  but  the  crafty  Pon'tius  contrived  to  draw 
these  generals,  with  their  leaders,  into  a  mountainous  and  rocky  defile, 
called  the  Caudine  Forks,  where  they  could  neither  t'i-ghl  i.or  lly  ;  and 
while  they  were  in  this  situation,  the  Samnites  blockaded  all  the  pas- 
sages. The  Romans  being  forced  to  capitulate,  Pon'tius  sent  to  ask 
his  father  in  what  manner  the  persons  should  be  treated :  the  old  man 
recommended  that  they  should  either  be  dismissed  with  all  honor  and 
freedom,  or  slaughtered  without  mercy.  Pon'tius  unwisely  adopted  a 
middle  course  ;  he  spared  the  lives  of  the  Romans,  but  compelled  them 
all,  officers  and  soldiers,  to  pass  under  the  yoke,  and  forced  the  consuls 
to  give  hostages  for  evacuating  Sam'niuin. 

This  disgraceful  treaty  was  disavowed  by  the  senate,  and  the  offi- 
cers who  had  signed  it  were  sent  bound  to  Pon'tius,  that  he  might 
wreak  his  vengeance  upon  them ;  but  the  Samnite  general  spurned 
such  poor  satisfaction,  and  vainly  demanded  either  that  the  whole  Ro- 
man army  should  be  again  pl^ed  in  his  power,  or  that  the  articles  of 
capitulation  should  be  strictly  observed.  The  Romans  turned  a  deaf 
ear  to  these  proposals  ;  Papir'ius  Cur'sor  once  more  showed  them  the 
way  to  victory  ;  his  successors  in  command  followed  his  example  ;  and 
the  Samnites,  completely  humbled,  sought  and  obtained  conditions  of 
peace  (b.  c.  303).  But  amity  could  not  long  subsist  between  nations 
aspiring  each  to  the  supremacy  of  Italy :  the  war  was  renewed 
(b.  c.  297) ;  and  Fabius  Max'imus,  with  his  colleague,  the  younger 
Decius,  rivalled  the  exploits  of  Papir'ius  Cur'sor.  The  Samnites  were 
aided  by  the  Umbrians,  the  Etrurians,  and  the  Gauls  ;  but  the  desperate 
valor  of  the  Romans  enabled  uhem  to  triumph  over  this  formidable  con- 
federacy. Once  they  were  on  the  point  of  being  defeated  by  the 
Gauls  (b.  c.  294) ;  but  the  younger  Decius,  imitating  the  example  of 
his  father,  devoted  himself  an  oflering  to  the  gods,  and,  at  the  sacrifice 
of  his  life,  purchased  a  decisive  victory  for  his  countrymen.  At  length 
the  Samnites,  having  lost  their  brave  general  Pon'tius,  were  completely 
subdued  by  Curius  Dentatus  (b.  c.  290),  and  forced  to  submit  to  the 
terms  dictated  by  the  conquerors.  In  the  same  year  the  Sabines  were 
conquered  ;  and  Curius  had  'he  unusual  honor  of  having  two  triumphs 
decreed  to  him  in  one  consulate. 

The  Tarentines,  and  the  other  states  in  southern  Italy,  dreading  that 
the  Romans  would  take  vengeance  on  them  for  their  having  aided  the 
Samnites,  incited  the  Gauls  to  attack  the  republic.  These  barbarians 
were  at  first  successful ;  but  they  were  finally  crushed  by  Dentatus  and 
Fabncius.  Preparations  were  made  for  a  war  against  Taren'tum,  and 
its  luxurious  citizens  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Pyr'- 
ibus,  king  ol'  Epirus.     That  royal  knight-errant,  believing  that  it  was 


218  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

m  his  power  to  found  as  extensive  an  empire  in  the  western  world  M 
Alexander  the  Great  had  recently  established  in  Asia,  readily  obeyed 
the  summons  ;  and  having  sent  his  friend  Cineas  with  a  strong  de- 
tachment to  secure  the  citadel  of  Taren'tum,  soon  followed  with  a 
powerful  army,  having  some  elephants  among  his  fomes,  the  first  that 
had  been  used  in  the  wars  of  western  Europe  (b.  c.  281).  It  wag 
solely  to  these  animals  that  Pyr'rhus  was  indebted  for  his  first  victory 
over  the  consul  Lajvinus ;  and  so  little  were  the  vanquished  terrified 
by  defeat,  that  they  vainly  offered  him  a  renewal  of  battle  before  the 
termination  of  the  campaign.  He  was  still  more  unsuccessful  in  his 
attempts  at  negotiation  ;  his  bribes  were  rejected  by  the  Roman  consul 
and  ambassador  Fabricius  ;  and  the  offers  of  peace  which  he  sent  to  the 
senate  by  the  orator  Cineas  were  peremptorily  rejected. 

A  second  time  Pyr'rhus  defeated  the  Romans  ;  but  vv^as  so  little  sat- 
isfied with  his  success  as  to  exclaim,  "  Another  such  victory  and  I  am 
undone!"  The  war  then  lingered,  and  Pyr'rhus  passed  over  into 
Sicily,  with  his  usual  inconstancy,  to  deliver  the  Greek  states  in  that 
island  from  the  Carthaginians.  During  his  absence  his  allies  suffered 
very  severely,  and  sent  pressing  messages  soliciting  his  return  ;  an  ex- 
cuse of  which  Pyr'rhus  readily  availed  himself  to  cover  the  shame  of 
his  failure  in  Sicily  (b.  c.  274).  Curius  Dentatus  and  Cornelius  Len'- 
tulus  were  chosen  consuls  to  oppose  him,  and  two  considerable  armies 
were  placed  at  their  disposal.  Pyr'rhus  marched  against  the  former, 
hoping  to  surprise  him  in  his  camp  near  Beneven'tum  ;  but  his  lights 
failing  him,  he  was  obliged  to  halt,  until  the  dawn  revealed  his  ap- 
proach to  the  Romans.  Instead  of  being  the  assailant,  the  Epirote 
monarch  Avas  himself  attacked  by  Dentatus ;  his  elephants  were  driven 
back  on  his  own  lines  by  fireballs  and  torches ;  and  after  vainly  en- 
deavoring to  stop  the  slaughter  of  his  bravest  troops,  he  was  forced  to 
fly  with  a  small  escort  to  'Faren'tum.  Thence  he  returned  to  Greece, 
leaving  a  garrison  under  the  commaTid  of  Milo  in  the  citadel,  which, 
however,  finally  surrendered  to  the  Romans.  The  Samnites,  Bruttians, 
and  Lucanians,  who  had  joined  Pyr'rhus,  were  easily  subdued  after 
his  departure  ;  and  Rome  estal)lished  her  supremacy  over  all  the  coun- 
tries in  Italy,  from  the  northern  frontiers  of  Etruria  to  the  Sicilian 
straits,  and  from  the  Tuscan  sea  to  the  Adriatic. 

Section  V. — From  the  Commencement  of  the  Punic  Wars  to  the  Beginning 
of  the  Civil  Dissensions  under  the  Grac'chi. 

FROM   B.  c.  264   TO   B.  c.  134. 

The  Mamer'tine  mercenaries,  who  had  seized  Messena  and  slaugh- 
tered the  citizens,  justly  dreading  the  vengeance  of  the  Syracusans, 
divided  into  two  parties ;  one  seeking  the  protection  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians, the  other  that  of  the  Romans.  Thus  the  first  pretence  of  quar- 
rel between  the  two  mightiest  republics  of  ancient  times  was,  which 
should  have  the  honor,  or  rather  dishonor,  of  shielding  from  merited 
punishment  a  piratical  banditti,  stained  by  every  species  of  crime. 
The  Romans  were  long  delayed  by  their  reluctance  to  acknowledge 
such  discreditable  allies  ;  but  finding  that  the  Carthaginians  had  gained 
possession  of  the  Messenian  citadel,  they  made  speedy  preparations  to 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  219 

prevent  tlieir  rivals  from  bee  )niing  masters  of  Sicily  An  army  in- 
trusted to  the  command  of  the  consul  Ap'pius  Claudius,  was  conveyei 
across  the  straits  (the  vigilance  of  the  Carthaginian  fleet  being  eluded^ 
by  stratagem),  and  gained  possession  of  Messena.  Successive  victo- 
ries over  the  Syracusans  and  Carthaginians  soon  procured  the  Roman 
allies  among  the  Sicilian  states,  and  inspired  them  with  the  hope  of 
becoming  masters  of  the  island.  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  deserted 
his  former  allies,  and  by  his  early  alliance  with  Rome,  secured  the 
tranquillity  of  his  kingdom  in  the  coming  contest.  The  Carthaginians, 
on  the  other  hand,  who  had  looked  upon  Sicily  as  an  almost  certain 
conquest,  were  filled  with  rage  when  they  learned  the  danger  that 
threatened  their  possessions  in  that  island.  They  hired  a  vast  number 
of  mercenaries  in  Gaul,  Liguria,  and  Spain ;  they  made  Agrigen'tum 
their  chief  naval  and  military  depot,  storing  it  plentifully  with  the  mu- 
nitions of  war.  Notwithstanding  the  great  natural  and  artificial  strength 
of  Agrigen'tum,  the  Romans,  eager  to  seize  the  Carthaginian  magazines, 
laid  siege  to  the  city,  and  defeated  an  immense  army  that  had  been  sent 
to  its  relief  (b.  c.  262).  Dispirited  by  this  misfortune,  the  garrison 
abandoned  the  city,  which,  with  all  its  stores,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans.  But  this  success  only  roused  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome 
to  fresh  exertions  ;  they  saw  that  their  conquests  could  not  be  secure 
while  the  Carthaginians  held  the  supremacy  of  the  sea,  and  they  there- 
fore directed  all  their  energies  to  the  preparation  of  a  fleet. 

Though  not  wholly  unacquainted  with  ships,  the  Romans  had  hitherto 
paid  littie  or  no  attention  to  naval  afiairs  ;  and  their  model  for  building 
ships-of-war  was  a  Carthaginian  vessel  that  had  been  driven  ashore  in 
a.  storm.  After  some  indecisive  skirmishes,  the  consul  Duil'ius,  relying 
on  his  invention  of  the  "  corvus,"  a  machine  which  served  both  as  a 
grappling-iron  and  drawbridge,  hazarded  an  engagement  with  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  (b.  c.  260).  No  sooner  had  the  hostile  ships  closed, 
than  the  Romans  lowered  the  new  machines  on  the  enemies'  decks, 
and,  fighting  hand  to  hand,  carried  no  fewer  then  fifty  gaUoys  by  board- 
ing. The  Carthaginian  admiral  finding  naval  tactics  of  no  avail,  drew 
off"  the  rest  of  his  fleet.  To  commemorate  this  their  first  victory  by 
se.\  the  Romans  erected  a  rostral*  column  in  the  forum,  which  still 
coatinues  in  excellent  preservation,  the  chief  injury  it  has  susta-ned 
being  the  lr?«  of  part  of  the  inscription.  In  a  second  naval  engrvge- 
ment,  near  the  island  of  Lip'ara  (b.  c.  256),  the  Carthaginians  lost 
eighteen  vessels,  of  which  eight  were  sunk  and  ten  taken.  From  this 
time  forward  the  Romans  began  to  pay  great  attention  to  maritime  af 
fairs ;  they  maintained  navies  in  the  two  seas  of  Italy,  and  when  the 
ships  were  not  employed  in  war,  they  were  sent  to  make  surveys  of 
the  coasts.  The  increasing  importance  of  navigation  appears  manifest, 
from  the  repeated  representations  of  war-galleys  on  the  Roman  coins ; 
these  do  not  occur  before  the  first  Punic  war,  but  after  that  period  we 
find  them  becoming  very  common.  \ 

Tne  struggle  between  the  rival  republics  had  lasted  about  eight  years, 
when  the  Romans,  following  the  example  of  the  Syracusan  Agathoc'les, 
resolved   to  invade  Africa,  knowing  that  the  native  tribes  of  that  con- 

•  That  is,  ornamented  with  representations  of  the  rostra,  or  beaks  of  ships. 


220  ANCIEN1    HISTORY. 

tinent  were  weary  of  tlie  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  Carthage.  An  anna> 
fneiit  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  ships  was  prepared  for  this  great  en- 
terprise, and  intrusted  to  the  command  of  the  consuls  Reg'ulus  and 
Man'lius  (b.  c.  255).  A  third  sea-fight  was  a  necessary  preliminary  to 
Ciis  invasion ;  the  Carthaginians  were  once  more  defeated,  sixty-four 
of  their  galleys  were  taken,  and  thirty  destroyed.  The  victorious  fleet 
pursued  its  voyage  ;  Reg'ulus  effected  a  landing  without  loss,  and  took 
the  city  of  Clypea  by  storm.  Soon  after,  he  defeated  the  Carthaginian 
army  in  a  general  engagement,  and  seized  the  city  of  Tunis.  In  great 
terror  the  Carthaginians  sought  for  peace  ;  but  the  terms  demanded  by 
Reg'ulus  were  so  harsh,  that  they  resolved,  at  all  hazards,  to  continue 
the  war,  and  were  confirmed  in  their  determination  by  the  arr:val  of  a 
body  of  mercenary  troops  from  Greece,  under  the  command  of  Xanthip'- 
pus,  a  Spartan  general  of  high  reputation.  To  this  foreigner  the  Car- 
thaginians intrusted  the  command  of  their  army :  he  eagerly  sought  an 
opportunity  of  brmging  the  enemy  to  an  engagement ;  the  Romans  did 
not  decline  hi.«'  challenge ;  but  they  found  that  one  man  was  sufficient 
to  change  the  fortune  of  the  war.  Xanthip'pus  won  a  complete  vic- 
tory :  the  greater  part  of  the  Romans  were  taken  prisoners  or  cut  to 
pieces,  two  thousand  alone  escaping  to  the  city  of  Clypea ;  Reg'ulus 
himself  was  among  the  captives. 

The  Spartan  general,  after  this  brilliant  exploit,  returned  home.  A 
Roman  fleet  was  sent  to  bring  off"  the  garrison  of  Clypea,  and  gained 
on  the  voyage  a  great  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  ;  but  on  the  re- 
turn of  the  ships,  three  hundred  and  twenty  of  them,  with  all  on  board, 
were  destroyed  by  a  tempest.  A  second  naval  armament  suff'ered  a 
similar  fate  ;  and  the  Romans,  disheartened  by  these  repeated  misfor- 
tunes, abandoned  for  a  time  the  sea  to  their  enemies.  But  they  were 
in  some  degree  consoled  by  a  second  triumph  obtained  near  Panor'mus, 
in  Sicily,  over  As'drubal  (b.  c.  249),  which  gave  them  a  decided  supe- 
riority in  the  island. 

The  Carthaginians,  daunted  by  this  misfortune,  took  Reg'ulus  from 
his  dungeon  to  go  as  their  ambassador  to  Rome,  trusting  that,  weary  of 
a  long  captivity,  he  would  urge  the  senate  to  grant  favorable  terms  of 
peace.  Reg'ulus,  however,  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  continue  the 
war,  assuring  them  that  the  resources  of  Carthage  were  exhausted.  It 
is  generally  stated,  that  the  patriotic  general,  after  his  return  to  Africa, 
was  tortured  to  death  by  the  disappointed  Carthaginians.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  reason  lo  believe  that  he  died  a  natural  death,  and  that 
the  tale  of  his  savage  murder  was  invented  to  excuse  the  cruelty  w  'h 
which  his  family  treated  their  Carthaginian  captives.  The  renewed 
war  began  unfavorably  for  the  Romans,  their  entire  fleet  having  been 
wrecked  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily  (b.  c.  248),  and  Hamil'car  Bar'ca, 
the  new  commander  of  the  Carthaginians,  proving  a  worthy  successor 
of  Xanthip'pus.  But  they  were  not  dispirited  by  these  losses ;  a  new 
fleet,  of  better  construction  than  any  they  had  yet  possessed,  was  built, 
and  placed  under  the  command  of  the  consul  Lutatius  Cat'ulus  ;  at  the 
same  time  strong  reinforcements  were  sent  to  the  army  in  Sicily.  The 
hostile  navies  met  near  the  vEgates ;  the  consul  had  lightened  his  ves- 
sels by  landing  all  unnecessar)'  burdens  on  one  of  these  islands  ;  but 
Han' no,  the  Carthaginian  admiral,  in  his  hurry  to  engage,  left  liis  ves- 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC. 


221 


sels  er cumbered  with  baggage.  The  battle  was  brief  but  decisive; 
fifty  of  Han'no's  vessels  were  sunk,  and  seventy  taken ;  and  the  Car- 
thaginians were  for  ever  deprived  of  the  empire  of  the  sea  (b.  c.  241). 
But  the  consequences  of  this  defeat  threatened  still  more  fatal  results 
to  Carthage  :  Hamil'car  Bar'ca,  with  the  last  army  on  which  the  re- 
public could  depend,  was  closely  blockaded  hi  a  corner  of  Sicily,  and 
the  Roman  cruisers  cut  him  off  from  all  communication  with  AlVica  : 
were  he  forced  to  surrender,  Carthage  would  be  left  at  the  mercy  of  the 
barbarous  tribes  in  its  neighborhood.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
Carthaginians  sought  peace,  but  could  obtain  no  better  terms  than  those 
which 'Reg'ulus  demanded  when  in  sight  of  their  gates  (b.  c.210). 
These  conditions  were,  that  the  Carthaginians  should  evacuate  all  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  restore  the  Roman  prisoners  without 
ransom,  and  pay  three  thousand  talents  of  silver  (about  600,000''.)  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

After  the  termination  of  the  first  Punic  war,  Rome  enjoyed  a  brief 
period  of  domestic  and  external  tranquillity ;  and  the  temple  of  Janus 
was  shut  for  the  second  time  since  the  foundation  of  the  city.  Tedious 
■wars  were  waged  against  the  Ligurians  and  the  Gallic  tribes  which  had 
settled  in  northern  Italy,  when  the  people  became  weary  of  peace  ;  but 
a  more  important  contest  was  provoked  by  the  piracies  of  the  Illyrians, 
whose  queen,  Teiita,  procured  the  murder  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to 
remonstrate  against  the  outrages  of  her  subjects.  A  navy  was  soon 
estabUshed  in  the  Adriatic,  and  an  army  sent  into  lUyricum,  whoso 
rapid  successes  compelled  Teiita  to  purchase  peace  by  resigning  the 
greater  part  of  her  territories  (b.  c.  227).  This  speedy  conquest  diffused 
the  fame  of  the  Romans  throughout  eastern  Europe  ;  for  most  of  the 
Greek  states  had  suffered  severely  from  the  piracies  of  the  Illyrians. 
The  war  was  subsevjuently  renewed  (b.  c.  218),  and  the  Illyrians 
again  overthrown  with  greater  disgrace  and  loss. 

The  Carthaginians  were  anxious  to  compensate  their  losses  in  Sicily 
by  the  subjugation  of  Spain  ;  and  their  extensive  conquests  in  that  pen- 
insula gave  great  umbrage  to  their  suspicious  rivals.  A  pretext  for  in 
terference  was  soon  found.  Han'nibal,  the  son  of  Hamil'car  Bar'ca, 
who  had  been  brought,  while  yet  a  child,  to  the  altar  by  his  father,  and 
sworn  1  ever  to  relax  in  his  enmity  to  Rome,  laid  siege  to  Sagun^tum, 
a  Greek  colony  south  of  the  Iberus,  and  treated  with  contempt  the  re- 
monstrances of  the  Roman  ambassadors  (e.  c.  218).  His  conduct  hav- 
ing been  approved  by  the  Carthaginian  senate,  both  parties  made  instant 
preparations  for  renewing  hostilities,  and  soon  commenced  the  secoM 
Punic  war. 

Before  tlie  Roman  armies  were  ready  to  take  the  field,  Han'nibal  had 
completed  the  conquest  of  Spain,  and  crossed  the  Pyrenees  on. his  road 
to  Italy.  The  consul,  Scip'io,  hastened  to  prevent  him  from  passing 
the  Rhone  ;  but  being  frustrated  by  the  superior  diligence  of  the  Car- 
thaginian general,  he  sent  the  greater  part  of  his  forces  into  Spain,  and 
sailed  with  the  remainder  for  Italy,  in  order  to  intercept  his  enemies  as 
they  descended  from  the  Alps.  Even  ihese  formidable  mountains 
caused  but  little  delay  to  the  enterprising  Han'nibal.  He  led  his  army 
across  them  in  fifteen  days  (b.  c.  217);  and,  advancing  through  the 
country  of  the   Tauri'ni,   took  their   capital   city   (TvnVi)   by  storm. 


222  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Scip'io  hasted  to  meet  the  invaders  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Ticinus ; 
bat  he  was  defeated  w^ith  great  loss,  and  further  weakened  by  the  de- 
sertion of  his  Gallic  mercenaries,  who  eagerly  flocked  to  the  standard 
of  Han'nibal,  regarding  him  as  another  Bren'nus. 

In  the  meantime,  Scip'io  had  been  reinforced  by  Sempronius,  the 
other  uonsul ;  but  he  found  that  these  succors  were  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  impetuosity  of  his  colleague.  Sempronius,  eager  to 
engage,  imprudently  forded  the  river  Trebia,  though  its  waters  were 
swollen  by  rain  and  melted  snow.  The  Romans,  suddenly  attacked  as 
they  came  out  of  the  river,  were  not  able  to  cope  with  their  enemies, 
who  were  fresh  and  vigorous ;  nevertheless  they  made  a  brave  resist- 
ance, and  the  central  division,  unbroken,  made  its  way  from  the  field  to 
the  city  of  Placeii'tia.  The  victory,  however,  was  of  the  greatest  ser- 
vice to  Han'nibal,  as  it  secured  him  the  alliance  of  the  Gauls  in  north- 
ern Italy. 

Flanun'ius,  the  consul  of  the  next  year,  displayed  eve.i  more  impet- 
uosity and  imprudence  than  Sempronius.  Marching  incautiously  in 
search  of  Han'nibal,  lie  fell  into  an  ambuscade  near  the  Thrasyraenian 
lake,  and  was  slain,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  (b.  c.  216).  The 
Romans  were  so  alarmed  by  the  intelligence  of  this  great  calamity, 
that  they  created  Fabius  Max'imus  dictator,  though,  in  the  absence  of 
the  surviving  consul,  they  were  obliged  to  dispense  with  the  legal  for- 
malities. Fabius  adopted  a  new  system  of  tactics  ;  he  declined  fight- 
ing ;  but  moving  his  camp  along  the  summit  of  the  hills,  he  closely 
watched  the  motions  of  the  invaders,  harassed  their  march,  and  inter- 
cepted their  convoys.  From  his  steadfast  adherence  to  this  policy 
Fabius  received  the  name  of  Cunctator  (^Ike  delayer).  During  this  pe- 
riod, the  Roman  armies  in  Spain,  imder  the  command  of  the  Scip'ios, 
gained  many  important  advantages,  and  thus  prevented  the  Carthagini  - 
ans  from  sending  succors  to  Han'nibal. 

At  the  close  of  the  year,  Fabius  resigned  his  authority  to  the  consuls 
Paul'lus  iEmirius  and  Teren'tius  Var'ro  (b.  c.  215).  The  latter  hur- 
ried I'is  more  prudent  colleague  into  a  general  action  at  the  village  of 
Can'na?,  near  the  river  Aufidus,  where  the  Romans  suff'ered  a  more  se- 
vere defeat  than  any  they  had  received  since  their  fatal  overthrow  by 
the  Gauls  on  the  APlia.  This  victory  gave  Han'nibal  a  secure  position 
in  southern  Italy :  it  is  even  supposed,  that  he  would  have  got  posses- 
sion of  Rome  itself,  had  he  marched  thither  immediately  after  the 
battle. 

But  the  Romans,  notwithstanding  their  great  losses,  did  not  despair . 
Scip'io,  a  young  man  destined  at  no  distant  period  to  raise  liis  country 
to  the  summit  of  greatness,  encouraged  the  nobles  of  his  own  age  to 
stand  firm  at  this  crisis ;  and  Fabius  Cunctator  being  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  army,  resumed  the  cautious  system,  the  advantages  of 
which  had  been  already  so  fully  proved.  Han'nibal,  in  the  meantime, 
led  his  forces  to  Cap'ua,  where  his  veterans  were  enervated  by  the  lux- 
ury and  debauchery  of  that  licentious  city.  At  the  same  time  he  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Philip,  king  u^  Macedon ;  but  the  Romans,  by 
their  intrigues  in  Greece,  found  sufficient  employment  for  that  monarch 
at  home,  to  prevent  his  interference  in  the  afl'airs  of  Italy.  They  ever, 
sent  an  army  against  him,  under  the  command  of  the  praetor  Latvimus. 


nOMAN  REPUBLIC.  223 

and  thus,  though  exposed  to  such  danger  in  Italy,  they  maintained  a  vig- 
orous contest  in  Greece,  Spain,  and  Sicily. 

It  was  in  Sicily  that  success  first  began  to  dawn  upon  the  Roman 
cause  (b.  c.  212) :  the  ancient  city  of  Syracuse  was  taken  by  the  prae- 
tor Marcel'lus;  and  the  celebrated  mathematician,  Archime'des,  by  whose 
engines  the  defence  had  been  protracted,  was  slain  in  the  storm.  Two 
years  afterward,  Agrigen'tum,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Carthaginians, 
was  betrayed  to  Lsevinus  ;  and  the  Romans  remained  masters  of  the 
entire  island,  which  henceforth  became  a  regular  province. 

In  the  meantime  the  war  lingered  in  Italy  ;  the  Roman  generals  were 
rarely  able  to  cope  with  Han'nibal,  though  Marcel'lus  is  said  to  have 
gained  a  general  battle  over  the  Carthaginians.  On  the  otlier  hand, 
Han'nibal,  receiving  no  reinforcements  from  Carthage,  feared  to  peril 
his  limited  resources  in  any  decisive  enterprise.  At  length  he  sum- 
moned his  brother  As'drubal,  who  had  long  maintained  the  Carthaginian 
cause  against  the  Scipios  in  Spain,  to  join  him  in  Italy  ;  and  As'drubal, 
without  encounterhig  any  great  difficulty,  soon  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
and  Alps.  The  consuls,  Liv'ius  and  Nero,  having  discovered  the  di- 
rection of  the  Carthaginian's  march,  hastened  to  intercept  him.  As'- 
drubal, misled  by  his  guides,  was  forced  to  hazard  an  engagement  at  a 
disadvantage  on  the  banks  of  the  Metaiirus,  and  was  cut  to  pieces  with 
his  whole  army  (b.  c.  206).  The  first  information  Han'nibal  received 
of  this  great  misfortune,  was  the  sight  of  his  brother's  gory  head,  which 
the  consuls  caused  to  be  thrown  into  his  camp.  Soon  after,  the  Romans 
alarmed  the  Carthaginians  by  the  prospect  of  a  war  in  Africa,  having  en- 
tered into  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Massinis'sa,  the  legitimate  king  of 
Numidia,  and  also  with  the  usurper  Sy'phax. 

At  length  Scip'io,  the  conqueror  of  Spain,  was  chosen  consul,  and, 
contrary  to  the  strenuous  exertions  of  Fabius,  he  prevailed  upon  the  sen- 
ate to  permit  him  to  transfer  the  war  into  Africa  ;  and  this  was  the  more 
readily  conceded,  as  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Philip  (b.  c.  203)  had 
placed  a  fresh  army  at  their  disposal.  Scip'io,  on  landing  in  Africa 
(b.  c.  202),  found  that  Sy'phax  had  been  won  over  to  the  Carthaginian 
side  by  his  wife  Sophonis'ba,  the  daughter  of  As'drubal.  The  Roman 
general,  knowing,  hoM^ever  the  inconstancy  of  the  Numidian,  com- 
menced negotiations,  which  were  protracted  with  equal  duplicity. 
While  Sy'phax  was  thus  amused,  Scip'io  suddenly  surprised  and  burned 
his  camp  ;  then  attacking  the  Numidians  in  the  midst  of  the  confusion, 
he  put  forty  thousand  of  them  to  the  sword.  After  this  achievement, 
Scij/io  laid  siege  to  U'tica :  the  Carthaginians  raised  a  large  army  to 
relieve  a  place  of  so  much  importance  ;  but  they  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter,  and  pursued  to  their  very  walls.  This  victory  exposed  Car- 
thage itself  to  the  perils  of  a  siege  ;  Tunis,  ahi.  >st  within  sight  of  the 
city,  opened  its  ga'es  to  ihe  Rg  nu-,s  ;  at  1  the  Carthaginian  senate  driv- 
en almost  to  despair,  recalled  Han'nibal  from  Italy  to  the  defence  of  hia 
own  country. 

Ha;''n'bal,on  his  return  home,  would  have  made  peace  on  reasonable 
terms,  had  not  the  Carthaginian  populace,  elated  by  the  presence  of  the 
hero  of  a  hundred  fights,  obstinately  resisted  any  concession.  With  a 
heavy  heart  the  brave  old  general  made  preparations  for  a  decisive  en- 
gagement in  the  field  of  Ziima.     Han'nibal's  abilities  were  not  less  con- 


224  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

spicuous  in  ibis  fatal  fight  than  in  the  battles  he  had  won  in  Italy  :  but 
the  greater  part  of  his  forces  were  raw  troops,  unfit  to  cope  with  Scip- 
io's  disciplined  legions.  After  a  dreadful  struggle,  the  Romans  prevail- 
ed, and  they  followed  up  their  advantages  with  so  much  eagerness,  that 
twenty  thousand  of  the  Carthaginians  fell  in  the  battle  or  the  pursuit. 
Han'nibal,  after  having  performed  everything  that  a  general  or  brave 
soldier  could  do  to  restore  the  fortune  of  the  day,  fled  with  a  small  body 
of  horse  to  Adrumetum,  whence  he  was  soon  summoned  to  Carthage  to 
assist  the  tottering  republic  with  his  counsels  (b.  c.  201).  There  he 
informed  the  senate  that  "  Carthage  had  no  resource  but  in  peace  ;"  and 
these  words,  from  the  mouth  of  the  warlike  Han'nibal,  were  decisive. 
Ambassadors  were  sent  to  seek  conditions  from  the  conqueror ;  and  the 
humbled  Carthaginians  accepted  the  terms  of  peace  dictated  by  Scipio. 
who  henceforward  was  honored  with  the  title  of  Africanus.  The 
chief  articles  of  the  treaty  were,  that  Carthage  should  deliver  up  to  tlie 
Romans  all  their  deserters,  fugitive  slaves,  and  prisoners-of-war ;  sur- 
render all  her  ships-of-the-line,  except  ten  triremes,  and  all  her  ele- 
phants ;  restore  Numidia  to  Massinis'sa :  enter  into  no  war  without  the 
permission  of  the  Roman  people  ;  pay  as  a  ransom  ten  thousand  talents 
of  silver  (about  two  millions  sterling) :  and  give  one  hundred  hostages 
for  the  performance  of  the  treaty.  To  these  harsh  terms  the  Cartha- 
ginians sul)scribed  :  Scip'io  returned  home,  and  was  honored  with  the 
most  magnificent  triumph  that  had  yet  been  exhibited  in  Rome. 

Rome  was  now  become  a  great  military  republic,  supreme  in  western 
Europe,  and  commanding  a  preponderating  influence  in  the  east,  where 
the  kingdoms  formed  from  the  fragments  of  Alexander's  empire  had  sunk 
into  weakness  from  the  exhaustion  of  mutual  wars.  The  Athenians, 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  sought  the  protection 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  readily  granted,  as  the  senate  had  long  been 
anxious  to  find  a  pretext  for  meddling  in  the  afl^airs  of  Greece  (b.  c.  200). 
War  was  declared  against  Philip,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people  ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  follow  up  Scipio's  policy, 
by  making  the  enemy's  country  the  theatre  of  hostilities.  An  army 
was  sent  into  Ma:;edonia,  and  its  conduct  was  soon  intrusted  to  Quin'- 
tius  Flamin'ius,  whose  diplomatic  skill  was  even  more  conspicuous  than 
his  military  talents.  After  some  minor  engagements,  in  none  of  which 
did  Philip  evince  much  ability  as  a  general  or  statesman,  a  decisive  bat- 
tle was  fought  at  Cynosceph'alse  (b.  c.  197),  in  which  the  Macedoni- 
ans were  irretrievably  overthrown,  and  forced  to  submit  to  such  terms  of 
peace  as  the  conquerors  pleased  to  dictate.  This  success  was  followed 
by  the  solemn  mockery  of  proclaiming  liberty  to  Greece  at  the  Isthmian 
games,  which  filled  the  foolish  spectators  with  so  much  delight,  that 
they  virtually  became  slaves  to  the  Romans  through  gratitude  for  freedom. 

Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  hoping  to  establish  the  empire  of  the  Se- 
leucida?  in  the  east,  soon  caused  a  renewal  of  the  wars  in  Greece. 
Han'nibal  was  accused  to  the  Romans  by  his  treacherous  countrymen 
of  having  secretly  intrigued  with  this  monarch  ;  and  having  reason  to 
fear  that  he  would  be  surrendered  to  his  enemies,  he  fled  to  Antiochus 
in  Asia.  The  great  general,  however,  found  that  the  vain-glorious  Syr- 
ian was  unable  to  comprehend  his  prudent  plans  for  conducting  the  war, 
and  had  the  mortification  to  find  himself  suspected  of  being  secretly  in 


ttuMAN  REFUBLIC.  229 

Iwaji  ue  with  tho  Romans.  In  the  meantime  the  iEtolians,  displeased  by 
the  policy  which  the  Romans  were  pursuing,  invited  Aatioclius,  into 
Eiiiopo  ;  and  lliat  mnuarrh,  passing  over  into  Greece,  made  himsell 
master  of  the  ishuid  of  Euboc'a  (b.  c.  191).  War  was  instantly  de 
clared;  the  consul,  Acil'ius  Glabrio,  appeared  in  Greece  with  a  power- 
ful army ;  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Syrians  at  the  straits  of 
Thermop'yla2,  and  reduced  the  ^Etolians  to  such  great  extremities,  that 
they  were  forced  to  beg  a  peace  ;  but  the  senate  demanded  such  harsh 
conditions,  that  they  resolved  to  endure  the  hazards  of  war  a  little  longer 
(xi.  c.  190). 

In  the  following  year,  the  senate  intrusted  the  conduct  of  the  war  to 
Lucius  Scip'io,  under  whom  his  brother  Africanus  served  as  a  lieuten- 
ant. Having  soon  tranquillized  Greece,  the  two  brothers  passed  into 
Asia  :  after  many  minor  successes,  they  forced  Aniiochus  to  a  general 
battle  near  the  city  of  Magnesia,  in  which  that  monaich  was  complete- 
ly overthrown  (b.  c.  189).  He  was  forced  to  purchase  peace  by  re- 
signing all  his  possessions  in  Europe,  and  those  in  Asia  north  of  Mount 
Taurus ;  paying  a  fine  of  fifteen  thousand  Euboean  talents  (about  three 
millions  sterling) ;  and  promising  to  give  up  Han'nibal.  That  illustri- 
ous exile  fled  for  refuge  to  Prusias,  king  of  Bith'ynia ;  but  finding  that 
he  was  still  pursued  by  the  vindictive  hatred  of  the  Romans,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  life  by  taking  poison,  which,  in  anticipation  of  such  an  ex- 
tremity, he  always  carried  with  him  concealed  in  a  ring. 

On  their  return  home,  the  Scip'ios  were  accused  of  having  taken 
bribes  from  Antiochus  and  embezzling  the  public  money  (b.  c.  186) 
Africanus  refused  to  plead,  preferring  to  go  into  voluntary  exile  at  Li- 
ter'num,  where  he  died.  Lucius  was  condemned  ;  and  on  his  refusal  to 
pay  the  fine  imposed,  all  his  property  was  confiscated.  About  the  same 
time  Rome  exhibited  the  first  example  of  religious  persecution :  a  seel 
called  the  Bacchanalians,  having  been  accused  of  the  most  monstrous 
crimes,  several  laws  were  enacted  for  its  extirpation ;  but  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  discover  how  far  the  charges  against  this  unfortunate  society 
were  supported  by  evidence. 

The  mastery  assumed  by  the  Romans  in  Greece  gave  great  and  just 
ofience  to  the  principal  states  ;  but  their  yoke  was  felt  by  none  so  griev- 
ously as  Per'ses,  king  of  Macedon,  who  opened  for  himself  a  way  to  the 
throne  by  procuring  the  jur'icial  murder  of  his  brother  Demetrius.  Mu- 
tual complaints  and  recriminations  soon  led  to  open  war  (b.  c.  170) 
Per'ses  having  collected  his  forces,  entered  Thessaly,  captured  several 
important  towns,  defeated  a  Roman  army  on  the  river  Peneus,  and  wag 
joined  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Epirote  nation.  His  successes  con- 
tinued until  the  Romans  intrusted  the  conduct  of  the  war  to  iEmil'ius 
Paul'lus,  son  of  the  general  that  had  fallen  in  the  battle  of  Can'nai, 
though  he  was  past  the  age  at  which  they  usually  sent  out  commanders. 
While  the  new  general  advanced  against  Macedon,  the  praetor  Anciua 
invaded  Illyr'icum,  whose  monarch  had  entered  into  alliance  with  Per* 
ses,  and  subdued  the  entire  kingdom  in  the  short  space  of  thirty  days. 
Per'ses  being  hard  pressed,  resolved  to  hazard  a  battle  near  the  walls 
of  Pyd'na  (b.  c.  168).  After  both  armies  had  remairjed  for  some  dava 
in  sight  of  each  other,  an  accident  brought  on  an  engagement  contrary 
to  the  wishes  of  the  leaders  ;  it  ended  in  a  complete  victory  of  the  Rt> 

15 


226  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

mans.  Pe  /ses  fled  to  Samothrace,  but  was  soon  forced  to  surrender, 
and  was  reserved  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  Maced-nn, 
Epirus,  and  Illyr^icum,  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  provinces,  and 
it  became  evident  that  the  independence  of  the  remaining  Grecian 
states  would  not  long  be  respected.  The  triumph  of  yEmil'ius  Paul'- 
lus  was  the  most  splendid  which  had  been  yet  exhibited  in  Rome,  and 
it  became  the  precedent  for  the  subsequent  processions  of  victorious 
generals. 

The  destruction  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy  was  soon  followed  by 
that  of  the  miserable  remains  of  the  once  proud  republic  of  Carthage. 
To  this  war  the  Romans  were  stimulated  by  the  rigid  Cato,  surnauKid 
the  Cunsor,  who  was  animated  by  his  envy  of  Scip'io  Nasica,  on  ac- 
count of  his  great  inlluence  in  the  senate,  and  by  a  haughty  spirit  of 
revenge  for  some  slights  which  he  imagined  he  had  received  from  the 
Carthaginians  when  sent  as  ambassador  to  their  state.  The  pretext  for 
the  war  was  some  quarrels  between  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Numid- 
ians,  in  which,  however,  the  former  only  acted  upon  the  defensive. 
At  first,  the  Carthaginians  attempted  to  disarm  their  enemies  by  sub- 
mission ;  they  banished  all  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
Romans,  and  surrendered  their  arms  and  military  stores  to  the  consuls ; 
but  when  informed  that  they  must  abandon  their  city  and  consent  to  its 
demolition,  they  took  courage  from  despair,  and  set  their  insulting  foes 
at  defiance  (u.  c.  148).  They  made  the  most  vigorous  exertions  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  weapons  they  had  surrendered :  men  of  every 
rank  and  station  toiled  night  and  day  in  the  forges  ;  the  women  cut  off 
their  long  hair,  hitherto  the  great  source  of  their  pride,  to  furnish  strings 
for  the  bows  of  the  archers,  and  engines  of  the  slingers  ;  and  the  ban- 
ished As'drubal  was  recalled  to  the  defence  of  his  country. 

From  this  unexpected  display  of  courage  and  patriotism,  the  Romans 
found  Carthage  not  quite  so  easy  a  conquest  as  they  had  anticipated  : 
during  the  first  two  years  of  the  war  they  suffered  repeated  disappoint- 
ments ;  but  at  length  they  intrusted  the  command  of  their  armies  to 
Scip'io  ^milianus,  the  adopted  son  of  the  great  Africanus  (b.  c.  147). 
On  his  arrival  in  Africa  Scip'io's  first  care  was  to  restore  the  discipline 
of  the  soldiers,  who  had  been  allowed  by  their  former  commanders  to 
indulge  in  dangerous  licentiousness.  His  strictness  and  moderation 
won  him  the  friendship  of  the  African  nations,  and  enabled  him  in  his 
second  campaign  (b.  :.  146)  to  press  vigorously  the  siege  of  Carthage 
After  a  severe  struggVe,  the  Romans  forced  an  entrance  into  the  city  on 
the  side  of  Cothon,  or  the  port,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
great  wall.  Thence  Scip'io,  with  a  large  body  of  soldiers,  cut  his  way 
to  the  principal  square  of  the  city,  where  he  bivouacked  all  the  follow- 
ing night.  On  the  next  morning  the  fight  was  renewed,  and  the  whole 
city,  except  the  citadel  and  the  temple  of  iEsculapius,  taken  :  sir  days 
were  spent  in  preparation  for  the  siege  of  these  strongholds  ;  but,  on 
the  seventh,  the  garrison  in  the  citadel  surrendered  at  discretion  ;  and 
the  deserters  in  the  temple  of  iEsculapius,  setting  fire  to  that  building, 
perished  in  the  flames. 

Scanty  as  are  our  limits,  two  incidents  connected  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  this  ancient  commercial  metropolis,  so  long  the  rival  of  Ronie 
for  supi  jraacy  in  the  western  world,  must  not  be  omitted.    When  Scip'io 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  227 

beheld  Carthage  in  flames,  his  soul  was  softened  by  reilections  on  the 
instability  of  fortune,  and  he  could  not  avoid  anticipating  a  time  when 
Rome  herself  should  experience  the  same  calamities  as  those  which 
had  befallen  her  unfortunate  competitor.  He  vented  his  feehngs,  by 
quoting  from  Homer,  the  well-known  lines  in  wliich  Hector  predicts 
the  fall  of  Troy  :— 

«  Yet  come  it  will,  the  day  decreed  by  fates ; 
(How  my  heart  trembles,  wliilc  my  tongue  relates !) 
The  day  when  tliou,  imperial  Troy,  must  bend, 
And  see  thy  warriors  fall,  thy  glories  end." 

The  second  incident  is  still  more  ragic  :  As'drubal,  the  first  mover 
of  the  war,  had  fled  with  the  deserters,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and 
children,  to  the  temple  of  iEsculapius,  but  went  over  tc  'he  Romans  a 
little  before  the  destruction  of  that  edifice.  While  the  fire  was  kindling, 
the  wife  of  As'drubal,  having  decked  herself  in  the  best  manner  she 
could,  appeared  with  her  two  children  on  the  top  of  the  temple,  whence, 
calling  out  to  Scip'io,  she  begged  him  to  punish  her  husband  according 
to  his  deserts,  that  traitor  to  his  God,  his  country,  and  his  lamily.  Then 
directing  her  speech  to  As'drubal — "  Thou  wicked,  perfidious  wretch," 
she  exc?aimed,  "  thou  most  cowardly  of  men  !  This  fire  will  quickly 
consume  me  and  my  children  :  but  thou,  once  ruler  of  mighty  Carthage, 
what  a  triumph  shalt  thou  adorn !  And  what  punishment  wilt  thou  not 
sufter  from  him  at  whose  feet  thou  art  sitting !"  This  said,  she  cut  the 
throats  of  her  children,  threw  their  bodies  into  the  burning  building,  and 
sprung  after  them  into  the  very  centre  of  the  flames. 

During  the  third  Punic  war,  the  disturbances  excited  in  Macedonia  by 
an  impostor,  Andris'cus,  who  pretended  to  be  the  son  of  Philip,  kindled 
a  new  war,  which  proved  fatal  to  the  independence  of  Greece.  The 
Achffians  stimulated  by  some  factious  leaders,  took  up  arms  but  were 
subdued  the  very  same  year  that  Carthage  was  destroyed.  Mum'mius, 
■  the  consul  who  conducted  this  war,  sacked  and  burned  Corinth ;  and 
after  having  plundered  the  city  of  its  statues,  paintings,  and  most  valua- 
ble effects,  levelled  its  walls  and  houses  to  the  ground.  Thebes  and 
Chalcis  soon  after  shared  the  same  sad  fate.  If  we  may  believe  Vel- 
leius  Pater'culus,  Mum'mius  was  so  little  acquainted  with  the  value  of 
the  beautiful  works  of  art  which  fell  into  liis  possession,  that  he  cov- 
enanted with  the  masters  of  the  ships,  whom  he  hired  to  convey  from 
Corinth  to  Italy  a  great  number  of  exquisite  pieces  of  painting  and 
statuary,  that  "  if  they  lost  any  of  them,  they  should  furnish  others  in 
their  stead." 

Spain  next  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Romans.  No  nation 
that  the  republic  had  subdued  defended  its  liberties  with  greater  obsti- 
nacy. The  war  for  the  subjugation  of  the  Spaniards  commenced  six 
years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Carthaginians  from  the  western  penin- 
sula, and  was  exceedingly  obstinate  (».  9.  200).  This  struggle  was 
protracted  partly  from  the  natural  state  of  the  country,  which  was  thicldy 
populated  and  studded  with  natural  fortresses,  partly  from  the  courige 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  partly  from  the  peculiar  policy  of  the  Romans, 
who  were  accustomed  to  employ  their  allies  to  subdue  other  nations. 
The  chief  enemies  against  whom  the  invaders  had  to  contend  were  the 


£28  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Celtiberians  and  Lusitanians  ;  and  so  often  were  the  Romars  defeated, 
that  nothing  was  more  dreaded  by  the  soldiers  at  home  than  an  expedi- 
tion ao-ainst  such  formidable  foes.  At  length  the  Lusitanians  found  a 
leader  worthy  of  their  bravery  (b.  c.  146)  in  Viriatus,  who,  from  a 
shepherd,  became  a  hunter  and  a  robber  ;  and  in  consequence  of  his 
distinguished  v^alor  was  chosen  general-in-chief  by  his  countrymen. 
This  bold  leader  long  maintained  his  ground  against  the  Roman  armies, 
and  was  equally  formidable  whether  victorious  or  vanquished.  Indeed, 
he  was  never  more  to  be  dreaded  than  immediately  after  defeat,  because 
he  knew  how  to  make  the  most  of  the  advantages  arising  from  his 
knowledge  of  the  country,  and  of  the  dispositions  of  his  countrymen. 
Unable  to  compete  with  Viriatus,  the  consul  Cae'pio  treacherously  pro- 
cured his  assassination  (b.  c.  140)  ;  and  the  Lusitanians,  deprived  of 
their  leader,  were  easily  subdued. 

The  Numantine  war  in  hither  Spain  had  been  allowed  to  languish 
while  the  Lusitanians  remained  in  power  ;  it  was  now  renewed  with 
fresh  vigor  on  both  sides,  and  the  pro-consul  Pompey  laid  siege  to 
Numan'tia.  He  was  soon  compelled  to  raise  the  siege,  and  even  to 
enter  into  a  treaty  with  the  Numantines  ;  but  dreading  the  resentment 
of  the  senate,  he  disavowed  the  negotiation,  and,  by  his  great  interest, 
escaped  the  punishment  of  his  perfidy.  A  similar  disgrace  befell  Pom- 
pey's  successor,  Mancinus  ;  and  the  Romans,  alarmed  by  the  greal 
victories  of  the  Numantines,  raised  Scip'io  iEmilianus  a  second  time  to 
the  consulship,  and  assigned  him  Spain  as  his  province.  Scip'io  spent 
his  entire  consular  year  in  restoring  the  discipline  of  soldiers  dispirited 
by  defeat,  and  neglected  by  their  former  generals ;  he  then  with  the 
inferior  title  of  pro-consul,  directed  all  his  attention  to  concluding  the 
war.  Having  obtained  reinforcements  from  Africa,  he  laid  close  siege 
to  Numan'tia,  blockading  every  avenue  to  the  town.  After  a  protracted 
defence  of  more  than  six  months,  the  Numantines  destroyed  their  wives 
and  children,  set  fire  to  their  city,  threw  themselves  on  their  swords  or 
into  the  flames,  and  left  the  victors  nothing  to  triumph  over  but  empty 
walls  (b.  c.  133).  Spain  henceforth  became  a  Roman  province,  gov- 
erned by  two  annual  praetor^ 

A  rich  province  in  Asia  was  obtained  nearly  at  the  same  time  on 
much  more  easy  terms.  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  dying,  bequeathed 
his  dominions  to  the  Roman  republic  :  and  the  senate  took  possession 
of  the  valuable  inheritance,  without  heeding  the  remonstrances  of  the 
legitimate  heir.  But  this  acquisition  of  the  wealthiest  and  finest  dis- 
tricts in  Asia  Minor  eventually  cost  the  Romans  very  dear,  both  by  the 
corruption  of  morals  consequent  on  the  great  influx  of  Asiatic  wealth, 
and  the  dreadful  wars  in  which  this  legacy  involved  them  with  Mithri- 
dates,  king  of  Pon'tus. 

Section  VL — From  the   Beginning  of  the    Civi\    Dissensions   under   the 
Gr<zc'chi,  to  the   Downfal^of  the  Republic  and  Death  of  Pompey. 

FROM  B.  C.   134  TO  B.  C.  48, 

During  the  Punic,  Macedonian,  and  Spanish  wars,  the  power  of  the 
senate,  on  which  the  admini.stration  of  the  government  necessarily  de- 
rolved,  increased  very  rapidly,  and  the  form  of  the  constitution  con* 


ROMAN   REPUB1.IC.  429 

Bequently  was  changed  more  and  more  into  that  of  a  hateful  aristocracy, 
against  which  the  tribunes  of  the  people  struggled  rather  as  factioua 
demagogues  than  as  honest  defenders  of  popular  rights.  The  aristoc- 
racy acquired  vast  wealth  in  the  government  of  the  provinces,  and  they 
employed  their  acquisitions  in  extending  their  political  influence.  The 
most  obvious  means  of  effecting  this  purpose  was  jobbing  in  the  pubhc 
lands,  undertaking  the  management  of  extensive  tracts,  and  sub-lettinw 
them  to  a  crowd  of  needy  dependants. 

Tiberius  Grac'chus,  the  son  of  a  consul,  whose  mother  Cornelia  was 
a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Scip'io  Africanus,  witnessed  with  indig- 
nation the  progress  of  corruption,  and,  to  check  it,  resolved  to  enforce 
the  Licinian  prohibition  against  any  individual  renting  more  than  five 
hundred  acres  of  the  public  land.  His  office  of  tribune  enabled  him  at 
once  to  commence  operations  ;  but  before  committing  himself  to  the 
hazards  of  a  public  struggle,  he  sought  the  advice  of  the  most  virtuous 
and  respectable  men  in  Rome,  all  of  whom  sanctioned  his  project.  Not 
daring  to  oppose  directly  the  attempt  to  enforce  a  well-known  law,  the 
corrupt  nobles  engaged  one  of  the  tribune's  colleagues  to  thwart  his 
measures.  Grieved,  but  not  disheartened,  Tiberius  procured  the  depo- 
sition of  this  unworthy  magistrate,  and  carried  a  law,  constituting  a 
triumvirate,  or  commission  of  three  persons,  to  inquire  into  the  admin- 
istration of  the  public  lands,  and  the  violations  of  the  Licinian  law 
(b.  c.  132).  This  was  followed  by  a  proposal,  that  the  treasures 
which  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  had  bequeathed  to  the  Romans 
should  be  distributed  among  the  poorer  classes  of  the  people.  During 
the  agitation  of  this  and  some  similar  laws,  his  year  of  tribuneship 
expired,  and  the  patricians  resolved  to  prevent  his  re-election  by  abso- 
lute violence.  So  great  was  the  uproar  on  the  first  day  of  the  comitia, 
that  the  returning  officer  was  obliged  to  adjourn  the  proceedings.  Early 
in  the  following  morning,  when  the  assembly  met,  Tiberius  received 
information  that  some  of  the  nobles,  accompanied  by  bands  of  armed 
retainers,  had  resolved  to  attack  the  crowd  and  take  his  life.  Alarmed 
by  this  intelligence,  he  directed  his  friends  to  arm  themselves  as  well 
as  they  could  with  staves ;  and  when  the  people  began  to  inquire  the 
cause  of  this  strange  proceeding,  he  put  his  hand  to  his  head,  intima- 
ting that  his  life  was  in  danger.  Some  of  his  enemies  immediately 
ran  to  the  senate,  and  reported  that  Tiberius  Grac'chus  openly  demand- 
ed a  crown  from  the  people.  Scip'io  Nasica,  a  large  holder  of  public 
lands,  seized  this  pretext  to  urge  the  consul  to  destroy  the  reformer. 
On  the  refusal  of  that  magistrate  to  imbrue  his  hands  in  innocent 
blood,  Nasica,  accompanied  by  a  large  body  of  the  patricians,  with 
their  clients  and  dependants,  assaulted  the  unarmed  multitude  ;  Tibe- 
rius was  slain  in  the  tumult,  and  many  of  his  friends  were  either  mur- 
dered or  driven  into  banishment  without  any  legal  process.  So  great 
was  the  odium  Nasica  incurred  by  his  share  in  the  murder  of  his  kins- 
man, that  the  senate,  to  screen  him  from  popular  resentment,  sent  hira 
tc  Asia,  under  a  pretext  of  public  business,  but  in  reality  as  a  speciea 
of  honorable  exile  :  he  died  in  a  few  months,  the  victim  of  mortification 
and  remorse. 

While  the  city  was  thus  disturbed  by  civil  tumults,  Sicily  wai 
harassed  by  the  horrors  of  a  servile  war;  and  the  new  province  of 


230  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Per'gamus  was  usurped  by  Aristonicus,  a  natural  brother  of  ine  lata 
king  At'talus.  Both  wars  were  terminated  by  disgraceful  means,  which 
the  Romans  would  have  scorned  to  have  used  at  an  earlier  period  of 
their  history :  Eunus,  the  leader  of  the  slaves,  was  betrayed  by  some 
wretches  the  consul  had  bribed :  and  Per'gamus  was  not  subdued  until 
the  springs  which  supplied  water  to  the  principal  towns  were  poi- 
soned, 

Caius  Grac'chus  had  been  a  mere  youth  when  his  brother  Tiberius 
was  so  basely  murdered  ;  but,  undaunted  by  that  brother's  fate,  he  re- 
solved to  pursue  the  same  course,  and  was  confirmed  in  his  determina- 
tion by  his  mother  Cornelia,  a  woman  of  undaunted  spirit,  animated  by 
the  purest  principles  of  patriotism.  He  commenced  his  career  by 
offering  himself  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  quaestor,  to  which  he  v/as 
elected  without  opposition.  His  integrity  and  ability  in  this  station 
won  him  "  golden  opinions  from  all  sorts  of  men."  On  his  return  to 
Rome  he  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  ;  and  he  immediately  began 
to  take  measures  for  enforcing  the  agrarian  law  (b.  c.  122).  In  his 
second  tribuneship,  he  procured  the  enactment  of  a  law  transferring 
the  power  of  judging  corrupt  magistrates  from  the  senators  to  the 
equestrian  order ;  a  change  rendered  absolutely  necessary  by  the  im- 
punity that  had  long  been  granted  to  the  grossest  delinquency  and 
extortion.  At  length  the  senate  set  up  Drusus,  another  tribune,  as  a 
rival  to  Grac'chus.  This  wretched  minion  of  an  unprincipled  faction 
made  several  grants  of  public  money  and  remissions  of  taxes  to  the 
people,  with  the  direct  sanction  of  the  senate ;  and  soon  became  a 
favorite  with  the  ignorant  multitude.  A  severer  blow  was  the  exclu- 
sion of  Grac'chus  from  the  tribuneship  when  he  stood  candidate  the 
third  time,  the  officers  having  been  bribed  to  make  a  false  return ;  and 
this  was  followed  by  the  election  of  Opim'ius,  the  most  violent  of  the 
aristocratic  faction,  to  the  consulship. 

A  contest  could  not  long  be  avoided :  the  nobles,  confiding  in  the 
numbers  of  their  armed  retainers,  were  anxious  to  provoke  a  battle ; 
but  Grac'chus,  though  personally  menaced  by  the  consul,  was  desirous 
that  peace  should  be  preserved.  An  accident  precipitated  the  struggle. 
While  the  consul  was  performing  the  customary  morning  sacrifice, 
AntyFius,  one  of  his  lictors,  carrying  away  the  entrails,  said,  with  con- 
iemptuous  voice  and  gesture,  to  the  friends  of  Grac'chus  and  Furvius, , 
"  Make  way  there,  ye  worthless  citizens,  for  honest  men !"  The  pro- 
voked bystanders  instantly  assaulted  the  insolent  lictor,  and  slew  liim 
with  the  pins  of  their  table-books. 

This  imprudence  afforded  Opim'ius  the  opportunity  he  had  so  eagerly 
desired  ;  the  senate  hastily  assembled,  and  passed  a  vote  investing  him 
with  dictatorial  power.*  Grac'chus,  with  his  most  zealous  followers, 
took  possession  of  Mount  Aventine  :  here  he  was  soon  attacked  by  the 
sanguinary  Opim'ius ;  three  thousand  of  his  followers  were  slain,  and 
their  bodies  thrown  into  the  Tiber ;  and  Caius  himself  chose  to  fall  by 
the  hands  of  a  faithful  slave,  rather  than  glut  his  cruel  enemies  by  his 
tortures  (b.  c.  120).     With  the  Grac'chi  perished  the  freedom  of  the 

•  The  vote  by  which  absolute  power,  in  cases  of  emergency,  was  given  to  the 
consuls,  consisted  in  the  following  formula :  "  Ut  darent  operam  consuUs  ne  respuiy 
hca  quid  detrimenti  caperet." 


KOMAN  REPUBLIC.  23S 

Roman  republic ;  henceforth  the  supreme  power  of  the  state  waa 
wielded  by  a  corrupt,  avai'icious.  and  insolent  aristocracy,  from  whose 
avarice  and  oppression  even  the  worst  tyranny  of  the  worst  of  the  em- 
perors would  have  been  a  desirable  relief. 

The  profligacy  and  corruption  of  the  senate,  now  that  the  check  of 
popular  control  was  removed,  soon  became  manifest  by  their  conduct  in 
the  Jugurthine  war.  Micip'sa,  king  of  Numidia,  the  son  of  Massi- 
nis'sa,  divided  his  monarchy  on  his  death-bed  bctv/een  his  two  sons 
Hiemp'sal  and  Ad'herbal,  and  his  nephew  Jugur'tha, though  the  latter 
was  of  illegitimate  birth.  Jugur'tha  resolved  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  entire  inheritance,  procured  the  murder  of  Hiemp'sal,  and  e,om- 
pelled  Ad'hcrbal  to  seek  refuge  at  Rome.  The  senate  at  nrst  seemed 
disposed  to  punish  the  usurper ;  but  soon  won  over  by  his  bribes,  they 
actually  voted  him  a  reward  for  his  crimes,  decreeing  that  the  kingdom 
of  Numidia  should  be  divided  equally  between  him  and  Ad'herbal. 
Impunity  only  stimulated  Jugur'thato  fresh  iniquities ;  he  declared  war 
against  his  cousin,  gained  possession  of  his  person  by  a  capitulation, 
and,  in  violation  of  the  terms,  put  him  to  death.  Even  this  atrocity 
failed  to  rouse  the  senate ;  and  Jugur'tha  would  have  escaped  unpun- 
ished, had  not  Mem'mius,  one  of  the  tribunes,  exposed  the  profligate 
venality  of  the  aristocracy  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  people,  and 
persuaded  them  to  send  Cas'sius  the  prsetor  into  Africa,  to  bring  Jugur'- 
tha thence  to  Rome,  on  the  public  faith,  in  order  that  those  who  had 
taken  l)ribes  might  be  convicted  by  the  king's  evidence. 

Jugur'tha,  being  brought  before  the  assembly,  was  interrogated  by 
Mem'mius  ;  but  Bae'bius,  another  tribune,  who  had  been  bribed  for  the 
purpose,  forbade  the  king  to  make  any  reply.  The  Numidian,  however, 
soon  added  to  his  former  crimes,  by  procuring  the  murder  of  his  cousin 
Massiva  in  Rome,  suspecting  that  he  was  likely  to  be  raised  to  the 
throne  of  Numidia  by  a  party  in  the  senate.  Such  an  insult  couid  not 
be  borne  ;  Jugur'tha  was  instantly  ordered  to  quit  Italy  (b.  c.  109),  and 
an  army  raised  against  him  was  intrusted  to  the  command  of  the  consul 
Al'binus.  Instead  of  prosecuting  the  war,  Al'binus  left  his  brother 
Aulus,  a  vain,  avaricious  man,  in  command  of  the  army,  and  returned 
to  Italy.  Aiilus  invaded  Numidia,  hoping  that  Jugur'tha  would  purchase 
his  forbearance  by  a  large  sum ;  but  he  was  surrounded,  betrayed,  and 
forced  to  capitulate  on  the  most  disgraceful  terms.  The  Roman  people 
was  roused  to  exertion  by  this  infamy ;  a  commission  was  issued  for 
inquiring  into  the  criminality  of  those  who  had  received  bribes  ;  several 
of  the  leading  nobles,  among  whom  was  Opim'ius,  the  murderer  of 
Caius  Grac'chus,  were  convicted  on  the  clearest  evidence,  and  sen- 
tenced to  different  degrees  of  punishment.  Finally,  the  conduct  of  the 
war  was  intrusted  to  Quin'tus  Metel'lus,  a  strenuous  partisan  of  the 
aristocracy,  but  an  able  general,  and  an  incorruptible  statesman.  Wheii 
Metel'lus  had  almost  completed  the  conquest  of  Numidia,  he  was  sup- 
planted by  his  lieutenant  Caius  Marius,  a  man  of  the  lowest  birth,  but 
whom  valor,  talent,  and  a  zealous  devotion  to  the  popular  cause,  had 
elevated  to  fame  and  fortune.  Raised  to  the  consulship,  and  intrusted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Jugur^tha,by  the  favor  of  the  people, 
Marius  showed  little  respect  for  the  vote  of  the  senate  that  had  con- 
imued  Metel'lus  in  command.     He  raised  fresh  levies,  and  passed  ovei 


B32  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

into  Africa  just  when  Jugur'tha  had  been  forced  to  seek  refuge  with 
Boc'chus,  king  of  Mauritania  (b.  c.  106).  The  principal  cities  and 
fortresses  of  Numidia  were  speedily  subdued,  and  the  united  army  of 
Jugur'tha  and  Boc'chus  routed  with  great  slaughter.  The  Moorish 
king,  terrified  by  his  losses,  was  at  length  prevailed  upon  to  betray 
Jugur'ihato  Syl'la,  a  young  nobleman  who  held  the  important  office  of 
qucBstor  in  the  army  of  Marius  ;  and  this  wicked  usurper,  after  having 
been  exhibited  in  the  conqueror's  triumph,  was  starved  to  death  in 
prison. 

In  the  meantime,  the  barbarous  hordes  of  the  Cim'bri  and  Teutones 
were  devastating  Transalpine  Gaul,  and  had  defeated  the  Roman  armies 
sent  to  check  their  ravages.  At  length,  their  total  defeat  of  Cae'pio's  aur.y, 
and  slaughter  of  eighty  thousand  men,  spread  such  general  consterna- 
tion, that  the  senate  and  people  combined  to  raise  Marius  to  the  con- 
sulate a  second  time,  contrary  to  law.  It  was  not,  however,  until  his 
fourth  consulship  (b.  c.  100),  that  Marius  brought  the  Teutones  to  a 
decisive  engagement  at  A'quas  Lutia;.  The  annals  of  war  scarcely  '•e- 
cord  a  more  complete  victory  ;  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  of  ihe 
invaders  haAdng  been  slain  or  made  prisoners.  He  was  no  less  fortu- 
nate in  a  second  engagement  with  the  Cimbrians  ;  but  on  this  occasion 
his  old  quajstor,  but  now  his  rival,  Lucius  Syl'la,  had  fair  grounds  for 
claiming  a  large  share  in  the  honors  of  the  day.  About  the  same  time, 
a  second  servile  war  in  Sicily  was  terminated :  so  cruelly  was  the  re- 
volt of  these  unhappy  men  punished,  that  more  than  a  million  ol'  the 
insurgents  are  said  to  hfve  perished  in  the  field,  or  been  exposed  to 
wild  beasts  in  the  arena. 

A  much  more  dangerous  war,  called  the  Marsic,  the  Social,  or  the 
Italic,  was  provoked  by  the  injustice  with  which  the  Romans  treated 
their  Italian  allies.  The  different  states  having  in  vain  sought  a  re- 
dress ot  grievances  from  the  senate  and  people,  entered  into  a  secret 
conspiracy,  which  soon  extended  from  the  Liris  eastward  to  the  ex- 
tremity ')f  ancient  Italy.  The  Mar'si,  long  renowned  for  their  bravery, 
were  foremost  in  the  revolt,  and  hence  their  name  is  frequently  given 
to  the  war.  After  a  tedious  contest  of  three  years,  in  which  half  a 
million  of  men  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  the  Romans  granted  the 
freedom  of  their  city  to  the  states  that  laid  down  their  arms  (b.  c.  87), 
and  tranquillity  was  restored  in  Italy. 

But  the  Roman  power  was  exposed  almost  to  equal  danger  in  Asia 
by  the  rising  greatness  of  Mithridates,  the  celebrated  king  of  Pon'tus, 
who,  in  a  short  time,  made  himself  master  of  all  the  towns  and  islands 
in  Asia  Minor,  with  the  single  exception  of  Rhodes.  Marius  and 
8yl'la  eagerly  contended  for  the  chief  command  in  this  important  war ; 
the  latter  prevailed,  and  procured  the  banishment  of  his  rival,  who  very 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  Syl'la  departed  with  his  army  to  Asia  ; 
but,  during  his  absence,  the  consul  Cin'na  recalled  Marius,  and  Italy 
was  involved  in  all  the  horrors  of  civil  war  (b.  c.  86).  After  a  severe 
struggle,  the  aged  exile  having  e  /erywhere  defeated  the  partisans  of 
the  nobles,  made  his  triumphant  e*  try  into  Rome,  and  filled  the  entire 
city  with  slaughter.  Having  caused  the  murder  of  most  of  the  leading 
senators  and  knights  ihat  had  joined  in  procuring  ^lis  banishment,  he 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  23a 

declared  himself  consul  without  goinp;  through  the  formality  of  an  elec- 
tion, and  died  soon  after,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age. 

In  the  meantime,  Syl'la  defeated  the  armies  of  Mithridates  in  Greece 
took  Athens  by  storm,  slaughtered  its  citizens  without  mercy  or  com- 
punction, and  compelhul  the  king  of  Pon'tus  to  solicit  peace.  Syl'la 
willingly  consented,  for  he  had  neither  ships  nor  money  to  carry  on 
the  war ;  and  he  longed  impatiently  to  be  in  Italy,  that  he  might  re- 
venge himself  on  his  enemies,  who  were  so  cruelly  persecuting  hi? 
partisans. 

On  the  news  of  the  approach  of  Syl'la  with  a  victorious  aim)  ^b.  c 
83),  the  consuls  Cin'na  and  Car'bo  made  every  preparation  for  the  im 
pending  war  ;  but  the  former  was  murdered  by  his  mutinous  troops,  and 
the  latter,  though  aided  by  the  younger  Marius,  lid  iwt  posse  hs  abilities 
adequate  to  the  crisis.  After  a  severe  struggle,  Syl'la  prevailed,  and 
became  master  of  Rome.  He  surpassed  even  the  cruelties  of  Marius, 
slaughtering  without  mercy  not  merely  his  political  opponents,  but  all 
whom  he  suspected  of  discontent  at  his  elevation.  While  the  city  was 
filled  with  mourning  and  consternation,  he  caused  himself  to  be  elected 
dictator  for  an  unlimited  time  (b.  c.  81)  ;  but,  to  the  great  astonishment 
of  everybody,  he  resigned  his  power  at  the  end  of  three  years,  and  re- 
tired to  private  life.  He  died  soon  after  (b.  c.  77)  of  a  loathsome  dis- 
ease brought  on  by  intemperance  and  del)auchery. 

The  consul  Lep'idus  attempted  to  seize  the  power  which  Syl'la  had 
abdicated  ;  he  was  declared  a  public  enemy,  defeated  in  the  field,  for- 
saken by  his  friends,  and  abandoned  by  his  faithless  wife  :  he  sunk 
under  this  complication  of  misfortunes,  and  died  of  a  broken  heart.  But 
though  the  senate  escaped  this  danger,  they  were  alarmed  by  the  rapid 
progress  of  the  Marian  faction  in  Spain  (b.  c.  76),  where  Sertorius  had 
collected  a  powerful  array  from  the  relics  of  that  party.  After  some  de- 
liberation, the  management  of  this  war  was  intrusted  to  Pom'pey,  after- 
ward surnamed  the  Great,  though  he  had  not  yet  attained  the  consular  age, 
and  was  still  a  simple  Roman  knight.  Sertorius  proved  more  than  a  match 
for  the  young  general,  defeating  him  in  several  engagements  ;  but  treach- 
ery proved  more  efficacious  than  valor ;  the  bold  adventurer  was  murdered 
by  Perper'na  (b.  c.  73) ;  and  the  insurgents,  deprived  of  their  able  leader 
were  finally  subdued  by  Pom'pey  (b.  c.  70).  Before  the  Spanish  wa^ 
was  terminated,  Italy  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  daring  revolt  of 
Spar'tacus  (b.  c.  72).  This  dangerous  insurgent,  with  about  eighty  com- 
panions, forced  his  way  out  of  a  school  for  training  gladiators  at  Cap'ua, 
and  resolved,  instead  of  hazarding  his  life  in  the  arena,  for  the  brutal 
sport  of  the  Roman  populace,  to  make  war  on  the  republic.  Two  bril- 
liant victories  so  established  his  fame,  that  the  slaves,  deserting  their 
masters.  Hocked  to  his  standard  from  all  quarters,  and  he  soon  found 
himself  at  the  head  of  ten  thousand  men.  Fresh  successes  now  crowned 
his  arms  ;  praetors  and  consuls  were  sent  against  him,  and  defeated ; 
his  forces  rapidly  increased  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  ;  and 
he  even  attempted  to  make  himself  master  of  Rome.  At  length  the 
preetor  Cras'sus  succeeded  in  suppressing  this  formidable  revolt ;  but 
his  victory  was  chiefly  owing  to  ihe  want  of  union  and  discipline  in 
fhe  army  of  the   insurgents  (b.  c.  70).     Spar'tacus  hijnself  fell  in  tha 


234  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

field,  Q-nd  great  numbers   of  his  followers  were   crucified  by  the  bai 
barous  conquerors. 

Cras'sus  and  Pom'pey  were  chosen  consuls  the  next  year :  both 
were  ambitious  of  supreme  power,  and  both  began  to  pay  their  court  to 
the  people ;  Cras'sus  by  largesses  of  corn  and  money,  Pom'pey  by  re- 
storing the  tribunitian  power,  and  repealing  many  of  the  unpopular  laws 
of  Syl'Ia.  These  measures  gave  Pom'pey  so  much  influence,  that  he 
was  chosen  to  manage  the  war  against  the  Cilician  pirates,  in  spite  of  the 
most  vigorous  opposition  of  the  senators  ;  and  to  this  commission  there 
were  added,  by  the  Manilian  law,  the  government  of  Asia,  and  the  entire 
management  of  the  war  against  Mithridates  (b.  c.  65).  Little  did  the 
tribune  Manil'ius  foresee  that  he  was  placing  the  whole  power  of  the 
Roman  empire  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  would  soon  become  the 
most  strenuous  supporter  of  the  senate. 

Pom'pey  made  a  judicious  use  of  the  power  with  which  he  was  in- 
trusted ;  he  subdued  Mithridates,  and  established  the  sway  of  the  Ro- 
mans over  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia.  But  while  he  was  thus 
engaged  gathering  laurels  in  the  remote  east,  the  republic  narrowly 
escaped  destruction  from  the  conspiracy  of  Cat'iline  (b.  c.  62).  The 
original  contriver  of  this  celebrated  conspiracy,  Ser'gius  Cat'iline,  was 
a  young  man  of  noble  birth,  sullied,  however,  by  the  most  infamous  de- 
bauchery and  crimes.  The  recent  examples  of  Marius  and  Syl'Ia 
stimulated  him  to  attempt  making  himself  master  of  his  country  ;  and 
he  found  many  associates  among  the  profligate  young  nobles,  whom 
their  riotous  extravagance  had  overwhelmed  with  a  load  of  debt.  The 
great  impediment  to  the  success  of  the  plans  of  the  conspirators  was 
the  vigilance  of  the  consul  Cicero,  who  had  raised  himself  to  the  high- 
est rank  in  the  state  by  his  consummate  eloquence  and  great  skill  in 
political  affairs.  His  murder  was  deemed  a  necessary  preliminary  to 
any  open  efforts  ;  but  Cicero  received  secret  warnings  of  his  danger 
from  Curius,  one  of  the  conspirators,  whose  mistress  had  been  bribed 
by  the  consul ;  and  he  was  thus  enabled  to  disconcert  all  the  plans  of 
Cat'iline.  While  the  city  was  alarmed  by  rumors  of  danger,  Cat'iline 
had  the  hardihood  to  present  himself  in  the  senate-house,  where  Cicero 
pronounced  so  dreadful  an  invective  against  him,  that  the  hardened  con- 
spirator was  unable  to  reply,  and  fled  from  the  city  to  commence  open  war. 

In  the  meantime,  his  associates  in  the  city  attempted  to  form  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Allob'roges,  a  people  of  Gaul  that  had  sent  ambassadors 
to  petition  the  senate  for  some  relief  from  the  debt  with  which  their  na- 
tion was  oppressed.  These  ambassadors  betrayed  the  negotiations  to 
Cicero,  who  took  his  measures  so  well,  that  he  arrested  the  chiefs  of 
the  conspiracy  with  the  proofs  of  their  guilt  on  their  persons.  After  » 
warm  debate  in  the  senate,  it  was  resolved  that  the  traitors  should  be 
put  to  death  ;  Julius  Caesar,  who  was  now  fast  rising  into  notice  as  th& 
chief  of  the  popular  party,  protesting  almost  alone  against  the  danger- 
ous precedent  of  violating  the  Porcian  law,  which  forbade  the  capital 
punishment  of  a  Roman  citizen.  When  Cat'iline  heard  the  fate  of  his 
associates,  he  attempted  to  lead  his  forces  into  Gaul ;  but  he  was  over- 
taken by  a  consular  army,  defeated,  and  slain.  So  pleased  were  the 
senate  with  the  conduct  of  Cicero  on  this  occasion,  that  they  gave  hira 
the  honorable  title  of  Father  of  his  Country. 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  235 

Pom'pcy  soon  afterward  returned  to  Rome,  and  the  old  jealousies  be- 
tween him  and  Cras'sus  were  renewed ;  but  Julius  Cffisar,  whose  emi- 
nent abilities  were  now  known  and  valued,  succeeded  in  bringing  tho 
rivals  together,  and  uniting  them  with  himself  in  a  partnership  of 
power,  generally  called  "the  first  triumvirate"  (b.  c.  59).  They  were 
supported  in  this  project  by  the  infamous  Clodius,  whose  sole  aim  was 
to  be  revenged  on  Cicero  for  having  given  evidence  against  him  on 
a  criminal  trial.  To  wreak  his  vengeance  more  effectually,  he  had 
hiiiisclf  transferred  from  the  patrician  order  to  the  plebeian,  and  then 
becoming  a  candidate  for  the  tribuneship,  was  elected  without  much  op- 
position. By  the  exertions  of  Clodius,  Cicero  was  driven  into  banish- 
ment ;  but  he  was  honorably  recalled  after  a  year's  exile,  and  restored 
to  his  dignity  and  estates.  While  Clodius,  by  his  violence,  kept  the 
city  in  constant  agitation,  Pom'pey  and  Cras'sus  were  again  elected 
consuls  together ;  the  former  chose  Spain,  the  latter  Syria,  for  his 
province,  hoping  that  its  wealth  would  be  the  prey  of  his  boundless 
avarice  (b.  c.  54).  Cajsar  was  in  the  meantime  winning  fame  by  the 
conquest  of  Gaul,  and  establishing  a  military  reputation  which  soon 
eclipsed  that  of  all  his  contemporaries. 

The  union  of  the  triumvirs  was  first  disturbed  by  the  death  of  Julia, 
Caesar's  daughter,  who  had  been  married  to  Pom'pey,  and  exercised 
great  influence  over  both  her  father  and  her  husband.  But  the  compact 
was  completely  broken  by  the  unfortunate  termination  of  the  rash  expe- 
dition which  Cras'sus  undertook  against  the  Parthians,  in  which  he 
perished,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  (b.  c.  52). 

Caesar's  victorious  career  in  Gaul  lasted  nearly  eight  years  (from 
B.  c.  57  to  b.  c.  49).  During  this  space  of  time  he  subdued  all  the 
barbarous  and  warlike  tribes  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  German 
ocean ;  he  even  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  gained  several  victories  over 
the  Germans  ;  and,  passing  over  into  Britain,  he  subdued  the  southern 
part  of  the  island.  Pom'pey  at  first  favored  all  the  projects  of  his  col- 
league, procured  him  a  prolongation  of  his  command  and  supplies  of 
troops  ;  but  he  soon  became  envious  of  exploits  that  obscured  the  fame 
of  his  own  achievements ;  his  creatures  began  to  detract  from  the 
brilliancy  of  Caesar's  victories,  and  many  of  that  general's  official  let- 
ters were  suppressed  by  the  senate.  It  became  soon  obvious  that  the 
jealousies  of  the  two  surviving  triumvirs  could  be  arranged  only  in  the 
field  of  battle,  and  their  partisans  began  to  prepare  for  combat  long  be- 
fore the  principals  had  any  notion  of  breaking  the  peace. 

The  contest  began  by  Caesar's  demanding  permission  to  hold  the 
consulship  while  absent.  He  had  secured  his  interest  and  in- 
creased his  adherents  by  the  most  lavish  bribes,  having  spent 
nearly  half  a  million  on  the  purchase  of  Caius  Curio  alone.  This 
powerful  and  popular  tribune  placed  the  senate  in  a  very  difficult 
position,  by  proposing  that  both  Pom'pey  and  Caesar  should  re- 
sign their  ofiices,  and  retire  into  private  life  (b.  c.  51).  Some 
time  was  wasted  in  negotiations  ;  but  at  length  the  senate  (Jan.  7, 
B.C.  49)  passed  a  decree  by  which  Caesar  was  commanded  to  disband 
his  army  before  a  specified  day,  under  the  penalty  of  being  declared  a 
public  enemy.  Mark  Antony  and  Quin'tus  Cas'sius,  tribunes  of  tho 
people,  put  their  negative  on  thia  vote ;  but  their  prerogative  was  dia- 


2:^6  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

putecf,  and  a  debate  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  nany  severe 
speeches  were  made  against  them.  Finally,  the  vote  for  suspending 
the  constitution  passed  by  a  large  majority  in  a  very  full  house.  It  was 
decreed  that  "  the  consuls,  praetors,  proconsuls,  and  other  magistrates 
near  Rome,  should  take  care  that  the  republic  received  no  detriment." 
Antony  and  Cas'sius  fled  from  the  city  the  same  night,  disguised  as 
slaves.     They  were  followed  by  Curio  and  Caj'lius. 

When  Ceesar  received  this  intelligence,  he  resolved  to  march  imme- 
diately into  Italy,  before  Pom'pey  could  collect  forces  sufficient  for  the 
defence  of  the  peninsula.  The  rapidity  of  his  movements  disconcerted 
his  enemies ;  and  the  news  of  his  having  passed  the  Rubicon,  spread 
such  alarm  at  Rome,  that  the  senate  and  Pom'poy's  party  abandoned  the 
city,  leaving  the  public  treasure  behind  them.  All  Italy  was  subdued 
in  sixty  days.  On  the  17th  of  March,  Pom'pey  sailed  from  Brundu- 
siuin  for  Greece,  abandoning  his  country  to  his  rival.  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia speedily  followed  the  fate  of  the  peninsula. 

Elated  by  this  great  success,  Caesar  returned  to  Rome,  took  the  funds 
from  *he  public  treasury,  and,  after  a  brief  respite  of  six  or  seven  days, 
set  out  to  attack  Pom'pey's  lieutenants  in  Spain.  He  met  with  unex- 
pected resistance  from  the  city  of  Marseilles,  but,  leaving  a  detachment 
to  besiege  the  place,  he  continued  his  march  to  Iler'da,  where  he  found 
his  enemies  posted  under  the  command  of  Afninius  and  Petreius.  An 
undecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Iler'da  ;  but  Caesar,  taking  advantage  of 
the  inexperience  and  incapacity  of  his  opponents,  soon  reduced  them 
to  such  straits,  that  they  were  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion.  The 
reduction  of  the  remainder  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  was  soon  com- 
pleted, and  Caesar  returned  into  Gaul  to  finish  the  siege  of  Marseilles. 
Caesar's  presence  soon  forced  the  citizens  to  surrender.  Their  lives 
were  spared,  but  they  were  forced  to  give  up  all  their  arms,  magazines, 
and  money.  But  while  he  was  thus  everywhere  victorious  in  person, 
the  armies  commanded  by  his  lieutenants  met  with  some  reverses  in 
lUyricum  and  Africa. 

On  his  return  to  Rome,  Caesar  was  created  dictator.  Having  made 
proper  arrangements  for  the  government  of  the  city,  he  prepared  to  fol- 
low Pom'pey  into  Greece,  where  that  general  had  collected  ai?  immense 
army  from  the  principal  states  of  the  east.  His  inferiority  by  sea  ex- 
posed Caesar's  soldiers  to  great  dangers  and  hardships  in  their  passage 
from  Brundusium  to  Dyrac'chium ;  but  they  were  finally  transported 
into  western  Greece,  and  a  tedious  campaign,  in  which  both  leaders 
showed  themselves  equally  reluctant  to  hazard  a  general  engagement. 
From  Epirus  both  armies  moved  into  Thessaly ;  and  on  the  30th  of 
July  (b.  c.  48),  the  battle,  which  decided  the  fate  of  the  world,  was 
fought  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia.  Pom^pey's  forces  were  completely 
routed,  their  camp  stormed,  and  the  bodies  of  fugitives  that  preserved  a 
semblance  of  regularity  in  their  retreat,  forced  to  yield  themselves 
prisoners.  The  unfortunate  general  himself  made  no  effort  to  retrieve 
the  fortune  of  the  day :  when  his  squadron  of  cavalry,  on  which  he 
placed  his  principal  reliance,  were  routed,  he  retired  to  his  tent,  whence 
he  ned  in  disguise  when  the  enemy  began  to  storm  his  entrenchments. 

From  the  field  of  battle  Pom'pey  fled  to  the  ^Egean  sea.  probably 
designing  to  renew  the  war  in  Syria ;  but  finding  the  Asiatic  states  in-- 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  '-^37 

clin«d  to  withdraw  tlieir  allegiance  whon  they  heard  of  his  defeat,  he 
steered  for  Egypt,  accompanied  by  his  wife  Cornelia,  trusting  he  would 
receive  protection  from  the  young  king  of  that  country,  with  whose  fa- 
ther he  had  been  united  by  the  strictest  bonds  of  friendship.  But  the 
guardians  of  the  young  king  resolved  to  murder  the  unfortunate  fugi- 
tive, and  intrusted  the  execution  of  the  crime  to  Septim'ius,  a  Roman 
deserter,  and  Achil'las,  the  captain  of  the  Egyptian  guards.  Lucan 
has  given  a  very  vivid  description  of  the  catastrophe. 

"  Now  in  the  boat  defenceless  Pompey  sate, 
Surrounded  and  abandoned  to  liis  fate ; 
Nor  long  they  held  him  in  their  power  abroad, 
Ere  every  villain  drew  his  ruthless  sword : 
The  chief  perceived  their  purpose  soon,  and  spread 
His  Roman  gown,  with  patience,  o'er  his  head : 
And  when  the  cursed  Achillas  pierced  his  breast. 
His  rising  indignation  close  repressed. 
\  No  sighs,  no  groans  his  dignity  profaned, 

No  tears  his  still  unsullied  glory  stained  : 
Unmoved  and  firm  he  fixed  him  on  his  seat, 
And  died — as  when  he  lived  and  conquered — great." 

At  the  sad  sight  of  the  Egyptian  treachery,  Cornelia's  attendants, 
disregarding  her  lamentations,  weighed  anchor  and  stood  out  to  sea. 
Pom'pey's  body  was  flung  into  the  waves,  but  it  was  dragged  out  in  the 
night  by  one  Cor'dus,  who  had  been  Pom'pey's  qufestor  in  Cy'prus, 
and  interred  with  the  Roman  rites  of  sepulture.  Plutarch  informs  us 
that  his  ashes  were  subsequently  removed  to  Italy,  and  deposited  in  a 
vault  in  his  Alban  villa,  by  Cornelia :  but  Lucan  asserts  that  they  re- 
mained in  Egypt,  and  remonstrates  against  the  neglect  shown  to  the 
remains  of  the  hero. 

Section  VII. — The  Establish nient  of  the  Roman  Empre. 

FROM   B.  C.  48    TO    B.  C.  30. 

Thi;  news  of  Pom'pey's  death  occasioned  a  fresh  division  among 
his  fugitive  friends.  Many  who  were  attached  personally  to  him,  and 
who  held  out  in  hopes  of  seeing  him  again  at  their  head,  determined 
to  have  recourse  to  the  conqueror's  clemency.  Cornelia  returned  to 
Italy,  well  knowing  that  she  had  nothing  to  apprehend  from  Caisar. 
Cato,  with  Pom'pey's  two  sons,  remained  in  Africa,  and  marched  over- 
land to  join  Varus  and  Jiiba,  king  of  Numidia.  We  shall  see  imme- 
diately how  they  renewed  the  war,  and  exposed  the  victor  to  fresh 
fatigues  and  dangers. 

Cffisar,  immediately  after  his  victory,  commenced  a  close  pursuit  of 
his  competitor;  and  did  not  hear  of  his  death  until  his  arrival  in  Alex- 
andria, when  messengers  from  the  Egyptian  king  brought  him  Pom'- 
pey's head  and  ring.  Caesar  turned  with  disgust  from  these  relics.  He 
ordered  the  head  to  be  inhumed  with  due  honor ;  a.id  to  show  his  dis- 
approbation of  Egyptian  treachery,  he  caused  a  temple  to  be  erected 
near  Pom'pey's  tomb,  dedicated  to  Nem'esis,  the  avenging  power  of 
cruel  and  ii  human  deeds.  His  next  task  was  to  arrange  the  disputed 
succession  >f  the  crown ;  hut,  seduced  by  the  charms  of  the  princess 
Cleopatra,  he  showed  an  undue  preference  for  her  interests,  ani  thus 


238  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

induced  the  partisans  of  the  young  king  Ptolemy  to  take  up  arms.  As 
CjEsar  had  only  brought  a  handful  of  men  with  him  to  Alexandria,  he 
was  exposed  to  great  danger  by  this  sudden  burst  of  insurrection.  A 
fierce  battle  was  fought  in  the  city.  Cffisar  succeeded  in  firing  the 
Egyptian  fleet ;  but  unfortunately  the  flames  extended  to  the  celebrated 
puljiic  library,  and  the  greater  part  of  that  magnificent  collection  of  the 
most  valuable  works  of  ancient  times  perished  in  the  flames.  After  the 
struggle  had  been  protracted  for  some  time,  Caesar  at  length  received 
reinforcements  from  Syria,  and  soon  triumphed  over  all  his  enemies. 
From  Egypt  he  marched  against  Pharnaces,  the  unnatural  son  of  the 
great  Mithridates,  and  subdued  him  so  easily,  that  he  described  the 
campaign  in  three  words,  '•  Veni,  Vidi,  Vici"— (/  came,  I  saw,  I  con- 
quered). 

Having  thus  settled  the  affairs  of  the  East,  he  departed  for  Rome, 
having  been  created  dictator  in  his  absence ;  and  found  on  his  returr. 
the  aflairs  of  the  city  in  the  greatest  confusion,  caused  by  the  quarrels 
between  Antony  and  DolabeFla.  Cajsar  with  difiiculty  reconciled  their 
difTerences,  and  began  to  make  preparations  for  his  war  in  Africa 
against  Cato  and  the  sons  of  Pom'pey.  On  his  arrival  in  Africa,  he 
did  not  find  victory  quite  so  easy  as  he  had  anticipated ;  but  at  length 
he  forced  his  enemies  to  a  decisive  engagement  at  Thap'sus,  and  gave 
them  a  complete  overthrow.  Thence  he  advanced  to  U'tica,  which 
was  garrisoned  by  the  celebrated  Cato,  whose  hostility  to  Caesar  was 
inflexible.  It  v/as  not,  however,  supported  by  his  followers ;  and 
Cato,  seeing  his  friends  resolved  on  yielding,  committed  suicide.  The 
sons  of  Pom'pey  made  their  escape  into  Spain,  where  they  soon  col- 
lected a  formidable  party. 

Having  concluded  the  African  war  in  about  five  months,  Caesar 
returned  to  Rome  (b.  c.  45)  to  celebrate  his  triumph.  The  senate  placed 
no  bounds  to  their  adulation,  passing,  in  their  excessive  flattery,  the 
limits  even  of  ordinary  decency.  They  decreed  that  in  his  triumph 
his  chariot  should  be  drawn  by  four  white  horses,  like  those  of  Jupiter 
and  the  Sun  :  they  created  him  dictator  for  ten  years,  and  inspector  of 
morals  for  three  years :  they  commanded  his  statue  to  be  placed  in  the 
capitol,  opposite  to  that  of  Jupiter,  with  the  globe  of  the  earth  beneath 
his  feet,  and  with  the  following  inscription,  "  To  Cajsar,  the  demigod." 

During  his  residence  at  Rome,  the  dictator  distinguished  himself  by 
several  acts  of  clemency,  more  truly  honorable  to  his  character  than 
all  the  titles  conferred  upon  him  by  a  servile  senate.  Having  provided 
for  the  safety  of  the  city  during  his  absence,  he  hasted  into  Spain  to 
terminate  the  civil  war  by  crushing  the  relics  of  his  opponents,  who 
still  made  head  under  the  sons  of  Pom'pey.  Early  in  the  spring 
(b.  c.  44),  the  two  armies  met  in  the  plains  of  Mun'da :  the  battle  was 
arduous  and  well  contested ;  Caesar  had  never  been  exposed  to  such 
danger  ;  even  his  veterans  began  to  give  ground.  By  leading,  how- 
ever, his  favorite  tenth  legion  to  the  charge,  he  restored  the  fortune  of 
the  field,  and  his  exertions  were  crowned  with  a  decisive  victory^ 
which  put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  elder  of  Pom'pey's  sons  was  taken 
and  slain  ;  Sex'tus  the  younger  escaped  to  the  mountains  of  Celtiberia. 

Having  thus  completely  extinguished  thf  iast  embers  "»f  tbe  civil 
war,  Caesar  contemplated  several  vast  designs  for  extending  and  im- 


ROME  239 

proving  the  empire  he  had  acquired.  He  resolved  to  revenge  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Cras'sus  on  the  Partliians  ;  he  undertook  to  rebuild  and 
repair  several  towns  in  Italy,  to  drain  the  Pomptine  marshes,  to  dig  9 
new  bed  for  the  Tiber,  to  form  a  capacious  harbor  at  Os'tia,  and  to  cut 
a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Corintli.  But  these  gigantic  projects 
did  not  compensate,  in  the  minds  of  his  countrymen,  for  the  criminal 
design  ho  was  understood  to  have  formed  of  making  himself  king  of 
Rome.  Mark  Antony,  it  is  supposed  at  Caesar's  secret  instigation,  of- 
fered the  dictator  a  regal  crown  at  the  feast  of  the  Lupercalia,  which 
Caesar,  perceiving  the  displeasure  of  the  people,  deemed  it  prudent  to 
refuse  :  Antony,  however,  had  it  entered  in  the  public  acts,  "  That  by 
the  command  of  the  people,  as  consul,  he  had  offered  the  name  of 
king  to  Caesar,  perpetual  dictator ;  and  that  Caesar  would  not  accept  of 
it." 

A  large  body  of  the  senators,  regarding  Caesar  as  a  usurper,  con- 
spired for  his  destruction,  among  whom  Brutus  and  Cas'sius  were  the 
most  conspicuous.  They  resolved  to  put  their  plot  into  execution  in 
the  senate-house  (March  15,  b.  c.  44)  ;  but  they  very  narrowly  escaped 
detection,  from  a  variety  of  untoward  accidents.  As  soon  as  Caesar 
had  taken  liis  place,  he  was  surrounded  by  the  conspirators,  one  of 
whom,  pretending  to  urge  some  request,  held  him  down  by  his  robe : 
this  was  the  signal  agreed  upon ;  the  other  conspirators  rushed  upon 
him  with  their  daggers,  and  he  fell,  pierced  by  twenty-three  wounds, 
at  the  base  of  Pom'pey's  statue.  The  murderers  had  no  sooner  finished 
their  work,  than  Brutus,  lifting  up  his  dagger,  congratulated  the  senate, 
and  Cicero  in  particular,  on  the  recovery  of  liberty ;  but  the  senators, 
seized  with  astonishment,  rushed  from  the  capitol  and  hid  themselves 
in  their  own  houses.  Tranquillity  prevailed  until  the  day  of  Caisar's 
funeral,  when  Mark  Antony,  by  a  studied  harangue,  so  inflamed  the 
passions  of  the  populace,  that  they  stormed  the  senate-house,  tore  up 
its  benches  to  make  a  funeral  pile  for  the  body,  and  raised  such  a  con- 
flagration that  several  houses  were  entirely  consumed.  This  was  a 
clear  warning  to  the  conspirators,  who  immediately  quitted  Rome,  and 
prepared  to  defend  themselves  by  force  of  arms. 

Mark  Antony  long  deceived  the  conspirators  by  an  appearance  of 
moderation,  and  an  affected  anxiety  to  procure  an  act  of  amnesty  ;  but 
when  joined  by  Octavius  Caesar,  the  nephew  and  heir  of  the  murdered 
dictator,  he  threw  oflf  the  mask,  and  proposed  extraordinary  honors  to 
the  memory  of  Caesar,  with  a  religious  supplication  to  him  as  a  divin- 
ity. Brutus  and  Cas'sius  at  length  discovering  that  Antony  meditated 
nothing  but  war,  and  that  their  aflairs  were  daily  growing  more  desper- 
ate, left  Italy,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  East.  Octavius  Csesar,  becom- 
ing jealous  of  Antony,  joined  the  party  of  the  senate ;  and  Antony, 
retiring  into  Cisalpine  Gaul,  levied  an  army  of  veterans,  and  came  to  an 
engagement  with  the  armies  of  the  republic,  in  which  both  the  consuls 
were  slain.  Antony,  defeated  in  the  field,  fled  to  Lep'idus  in  Spain  : 
and  Octavius  Caesar,  whom  the  death  of  the  consids  had  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  army,  entered  secretly  into  a  correspondence  with  the  ene- 
mies of  the  senate.  Their  mutual  interests  led  to  the  formation  of  a 
league  between  Octavius,  Lep'idus,  and  Antony,  called  tlie  second  tri- 
umvirate (November  27,  b.  c   43),  and  their  confederacy  was  cemented 


240  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

by  the  blood  of  the  noblest  citizens  of  Rome,  shed  in  a  proscription 
more  ruthless  and  sanguinary  than  those  of  Marius  and  Syl'la.  Tho 
most  illustrious  of  the  victims  was  the  celebrated  Cicero,  whose  severe 
invectives  against  Antony  had  procured  him  the  relentless  hatred  of  the 
triumvir.  Octavius  is  said  to  have  hesitated  long  before  consenting  to 
the  sacrifice  of  the  greatest  orator  that  Rome  ever  produced,  and  the 
most  patriotic  of  her  recent  statesmen ;  but  at  length  he  permitted  the 
fatal  consent  to  be  extorted,  and  Cicero  fell  a  victim  to  a  band  of  assas- 
sins, headed  by  a  tribune  whom  he  had  formerly  defended  and  preserved 
in  a  capital  cause. 

The  triumvirs  having  taken  vengeance  on  their  enemies  in  Italy,  be- 
gan to  prepare  for  carrying  on  war  against  Brutus  and  Cas'sius.  Mace- 
donia became  the  theatre  of  the  new  civil  war :  the  republicans  at  first 
seemed  destined  to  conquer ;  they  appeared  to  possess  superior  talents 
and  greater  forces  by  land  and  sea.  But  in  the  double  battle  at  Phi- 
lip'pi,  fortune  rather  than  talent  gave  the  victory  to  the  triumvirs ;  and 
Cas'sius  destroyed  himself  after  the  first  contest,  and  Brutus  after  the 
second  (b.  c.  42).  Antony  made  a  cruel  use  of  his  victory,  putting  to 
death  his  political  opponents  without  mercy.  Octavius  emulated  the 
crimes  of  his  colleague,  and  treated  the  most  illustrious  of  his  prison- 
ers with  barbarity  and  abusive  language. 

After  his  victory  Antony  visited  Greece,  where  he  was  received 
with  the  most  refined  flattery.  Thence  he  passed  into  Asia,  where  all 
the  sovereigns  of  the  East  came  to  offer  him  homage ;  but  he  was 
most  gratified  by  a  visit  from  the  celebrated  Cleopatra,  who  rendered 
the  voluptuous  triumvir  a  captive  to  her  charms.  Resigning  all  his 
plans  of  war  against  the  Parthians,  he  followed  this  celebrated  beauty 
into  Egypt,  and  in  her  company  neglected  all  care  of  public  affairs. 
Octavius  Caesar,  on  the  other  hand,  proceeded  to  Italy,  and  took  the 
most  efficacious  means  for  securing  the  permanence  of  his  power. 
Lucius  the  brother,  and  Ful'via  the  wife  of  Antony,  excited  a  new  war 
against  Octavius  ;  but  they  were  soon  defeated,  and  the  capture  of  their 
principal  stronghold,  Perusia  (b.  c.  41),  rendered  Caesar's  nephew 
master  of  Italy,  and  almost  the  recognised  heir  of  his  uncle's  power. 

Antony  was  still  immersed  in  pleasure  at  Alexandria,  when  he  re- 
ceived the  account  of  his  brother's  defeat,  and  the  ruin  of  his  party  in 
Italy ;  at  the  same  time  he  heard  that  Octavius  had  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  both  Gauls,  and  had  got  all  the  legions  into  his  hands  that  were 
quartered  in  those  districts.  He  was  roused  by  these  tidings  from  his 
lethargy,  and  immediately  proceeded  toward  Italy  ;  but  blaming  Ful'via 
for  all  his  disasters,  he  treated  her  with  so  much  contempt,  that  she 
died  of  a  broken  heart.  This  circumstance  paved  the  way  to  a  recon- 
ciliation ;  Antony  married  Octavia,  the  half-sister  of  his  rival,  and  a 
new  division  was  made  of  the  Roman  empire.  Sex'tus  Pom'pey,  who 
during  the  troubles  had  become  powerful  by  sea,  was  included  in  the 
new  arrangements,  and  obtained  the  possession  of  the  Peloponnesus 
and  several  important  islands. 

But  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  triumvirs  rendered  peace  of  short 
duration.  Octavius  drove  Pom'pey  from  Sicily,  and  compelled  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  East,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  one  of  Antony's 
lieutenai'ts ;  and  about  the  same  time  he  deprived  Lep'idus  of  all  his 


ROME.  241 

powtir,  and  took  possession  of  his  dominions.  Antony,  while  his  rival 
was  thus  acquiring  strength,  degraded  himself  by  an  unsuccessful  wai 
against  the  Parthians  ;  after  which  he  rpUirned  to  Alexandria,  and  lost 
all  regard  to  his  character  or  his  interest  in  the  company  of  Cleopatra. 
Octavia  went  to  the  East,  hoping  to  withdraw  her  husband  from  the 
fascinating  siren  ;  but  the  infatuated  triumvir  refused  to  see  her,  and 
sent  her  orders  to  return  home.  He  completed  this  insult  by  sending 
her  a  bill  of  divorce,  and  professing  a  previous  marriage  with  Cleopa- 
tra. Preparations  for  war  were  instantly  made  on  both  sides  ;  but 
Antony's  debauchery,  and  slavery  to  the  caprices  of  an  abandoned 
woman,  disgusted  his  best  friends,  and  many  of  them  deserting  him 
brought  such  an  account  of  his  extravagance  to  Rome,  that  the  indignan*, 
citizens  passed  a  decree  for  deposing  him  from  the  consulship. 

The  great  rivals  were  soon  in  readiness  for  actior.  Antony  had  the 
most  numerous  forces  ;  but  Octavius  had  the  advantage  of  a  more  disci- 
plined army,  and,  at  least  in  appearance,  a  better  cause.  Their  fleets  and 
armies  were  soon  assembled  at  the  opposite  sides  of  the  gulf  of  Ambracia, 
where  they  remained  for  several  months  without  coming  to  a  decisive 
engagement.  At  length,  Antony,  instigated  by  Cleopatra,  formed  the 
fatal  resolution  of  deciding  the  contest  by  a  naval  battle.  The  fleets 
met  off"  the  promontory  of  Ac'tium  (September  2,  b.  c.  31),  while  the 
hostile  armies,  drawn  up  on  the  shore,  were  simple  spectators  of  the 
battle.  For  a  long  time  success  was  doubtful ;  until  Cleopatra,  wearied 
with  expectation,  and  overcome  with  fear,  unexpectedly  tacked  about, 
and  fled  toward  the  Peloponnesus  with  the  Egyptian  squadron  of  sixty 
sail ;  and,  what  is  more  surprising,  Antony  himself,  now  regardless  of 
his  honor,  fled  after  her,  abandoning  his  men  who  so  generously  ex- 
posed their  lives  for  his  interest.  The  battle,  notwithstanding,  con- 
tinued till  five  in  the  evening,  when  Antony's  forces  were  partly  con- 
strained to  submit  by  the  great  conduct  of  Agrip'pa,  and  partly  persuaded 
by  the  liberal  promises  of  Octavius.  The  army  of  Antony  could  not 
believe  in  the  flight  of  their  general,  and  held  out  for  seven  days  in  ex- 
pectation of  his  returning  to  join  them  ;  but  hearing  no  tidings  of  him, 
and  being  deserted  by  their  allies,  they  hasted  to  make  terms  with  the 
conqueror. 

Antony  and  Cleopatra  continued  their  flight  to  Egypt,  where  the  queea 
displayed  more  courage  and  enterprising  spirit  than  her  lover.  She 
caused  some  of  her  galleys  to  be  carried  over  the  isthmus  (of  Suez)  into 
the  Red  sea,  proposing  to  save  herself,  with  her  treasures,  in  an  un- 
known, world  ;  but  the  Arabians  having  burned  her  vessels,  she  was 
forced  to  abandon  a  design  so  full  of  difficulties,  and  she  therefore  com- 
menced fortifying  the  avenues  of  her  kingdom,  and  making  preparations 
for  war.  She  also  solicited  foreign  assistance,  addressing  herself  to  all 
the  princes  in  the  alliance  of  Antony.  While  Cleopatra  was  thus  em- 
ployed,  Antony  exhibited  the  most  lamentable  weakness :  at  first  ha 
affected  to  imitate  Timon  the  misanthrope,  and  shut  himself  up  without 
either  friends  or  domestics  ;  but  his  natural  temper  did  not  allow  him  to 
remain  long  in  this  state,  and  quitting  his  cell,  he  gave  himself  up  to 
feasting  and  every  kind  of  extravagance. 

In  the  meantime,  the  forces  of  Octavius   advanced  on   each  side  of 
Egypt.    Cornelius  Gal'lus  took  possession  of  Paretoniuin,  wliich  was  tli»- 

16 


242  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

key  of  Egypt  on  the  west  side  ;  and  Antony,  who  speeded  with  his  flee' 
and  army  to  wrest  it  out  of  his  hands,  was  forced  to  retire  with  great 
loss,  especially  of  his  ships.  Pelusium,  the  eastern  security  of  the 
kinedom,  was  surrendered  to  Octavius  at  the  first  summons  :  it  was  re- 
ported  that  Seleucus  the  governor  betrayed  the  place  by  Cleopatra's 
orders  ;  but  she,  to  clear  herself  from  such  an  imputation,  delivered  up 
his  wife  and  children  into  Antony's  hands.  Caesar  advanced  to  besiege 
Alexandria :  Antony  made  an  effort  to  impede  his  march,  but  he  was 
abandoned  by  his  soldiers  ;  and  finding  he  could  not  die  with  glory  in 
the  field,  he  returned  to  Alexandria,  overcome  with  rage  and  fury,  run- 
ning  and  crying  out,  "  that  Cleopatra  had  betrayed  him,  when  he  had 
ruined  all  his  fortunes  for  her  sake  alone."  The  queen,  hearing  his 
violent  trapsports,  retired  in  terror  to  a  monument  she  had  erected, 
secured  the  doors,  and  caused  a  report  to  be  spread  of  her  death. 
Upon  this  news,  Antony  attempted  to  commit  suicide,  and  inflicted  on 
himself  a  mortal  wound  :  hearing,  however,  in  the  midst  of  his  agonies, 
that  Cleopatra  still  lived  he  caused  himself  to  be  transported  to  her 
monument,  and  expired  in  her  presence. 

Cleopatra  seems  to  have  formed  some  hope  of  obtaining  the  same 
influence  over  Octavius  Caesar  that  she  had  exercised  over  Antony  ;  but 
finding  the  conqueror  insensible  to  her  charms,  and  having  received 
secret  inibrmation  that  he  reserved  her  to  adorn  his  triumph,  she  bribed 
a  countryman  to  convey  an  asp  to  her  in  a  basket  of  figs,  and  applied 
the  venomous  creature  to  her  arm,  and  thus  died.  Egypt  was  then 
reduced  into  the  form  of  a  Roman  province,  and  its  immense  riches 
transported  to  Rome,  which  enabled  Octavius  to  pay  all  he  owed  to  his 
soldiers.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  the  senate  saluted  him  by  the  hon- 
orable name  of  Augus'tus,  and  by  a  unanimous  vote  conceded  to  him 
the  entire  authority  of  the  state. 

The  era  of  the  Roman  empire  is  usually  dated  from  Jan.  1st,  b.  c. 
28.  The  title  of  Augus'tus  was  at  first  only  personal,  and  did  not  con- 
vey any  idea  of  sovereignty  :  several  of  the  imperial  family  took  it  who 
never  were  emperors,  such  as  German'icus.  The  female  line,  who  had 
not  the  least  shadow  of  sovereignty  with  the  Romans,  had  it  as  Antonia 
Major  ;  and  thus  Liv'ia  first  took  the  name  of  Augusta  when  she  was 
adopted,  by  her  kisband's  will,  into  the  Julian  family.  After  the  time 
of  Dieclesian  it  was  changed  into  Sem'per  Augus'tus  ;  and  this  title  was, 
in  modera  times,  assumed  by  the  emperors  of  Germany  and  Austria. 
It  may  appear  surprising  that  the  Romans  made  no  vigorous  effort  to 
recover  their  republican  constitution ;  but,  in  truth,  Roman  liberty  was 
destroyed  when  the  Grac'chi  were  murdered :  all  the  subsequent  civil 
dissensions  were  contests  for  power  between  different  sections  of  the 
oligarchy  ;  and  the  people,  weary  o*'the  oppression  of  the  aristocracy, 
gladly  sought  shelter  from  the  tyranny  of  the  nobles  in  the  despotic  sway 
of  a  single  master. 


IK) MAN  EMPIRE 


^43 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITION  OF 
THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Section  I. — Eurojyeayi  Countries. — Spain. 

In  general  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire  may  be  described  aa 
the  great  western  ocean,  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Danube  in  Europe,  the 
chain  of  Mount  Caucasus,  the  river  Euphrates  and  the  Syrian  deserts 
in  Asia,  and  the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa.  It  thus  included  the  fairest 
portions  of  the  known  world  surrounding  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

Its  most  western  province  was  the  Spanish  peninsula,  whose  bound- 
aries, being  fixed  by  nature,  continue  unvaried.  This  great  country, 
usually  called  Iberia  by  the  Greeks,  either  from  a  colony  of  Iberians, 
or  from  the  river  Iberus  (Ebro),  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  names 
Hispania  or  Hesperia.  It  was  usually  divided  into  three  great  portions, 
Lusitania,  BjEtica  or  Hispania  UUerior,  and  Tarraconensis  or  Hispania 
Giterior. 

The  chief  islands  were  the  major  and  minor  Baleares  {Majorca  and 
Minorca),  whose  inhabitants  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  as  slingers 
and  archers. 

Section  IL — Transalpine  Gaul. 

Ancient  Gaul  was  boundea  on  the  north  and  south  by  the  sea,  on 
the  west  by  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  east  by  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Var. 
It  WT.S  divided  into  three  great  sections,  Bel'gia,  Aquitania,  and  Gal'lia 
Propria  ;  in  which  the  language,  manners,  and  customs,  differed  con- 
siderably. 

The  religion  of  the  ancient  Gauls,  like  that  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
was  druidical ;  they  worshipped  a  supreme  deity  called  Hesus,  or  ^Esar, 
to  whom  they  believed  the  oak  to  be  sacred,  especially  if  the  parasitical 
plant  called  mistletoe  were  found  growing  upon  it.  Their  rites  were 
very  sanguinary :  human  victims  were  sacrificed  in  their  groves  and 
circles  of  stone  ;  and  it  is  said  that  their  nobles  occasionally  volunteered 
to  ofler  themselves  upon  the  national  altars.  Temples  were  not  erected 
in  Gaul,  until  after  its  conquest  by  the  Romans ;  but  long  before  that 
period  the  worship  of  a  crowd  of  inferior  deities  had  been  introduced. 

The  several  Gallic  tribes  were  usually  independent  of  each  other ; 
but  on  great  occasions  a  general  council  of  the  nation  was  summoned. 


244  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

especially  when  pieparations  were  made  for  any  of  the  great  migrations 
which  proved  so  calamitous  to  Greece  and  Italy.  Their  superior  valoi 
rendered  these  tribes  very  formidable  to  all  the  southern  nations  ;  it  was 
commonly  said,  that  the  Romans  fought  with  others  for  conquest,  but 
with  the  Gauls  for  actual  existence.  But  from  the  time  of  the  subju- 
gation of  their  country  by  Julius  Caesar,  their  valor  seemed  to  have 
disappeared  together  with  their  liberty  ;  they  never  revolted,  except 
when  the  extortions  of  their  rulers  became  insupportable  ;  and  their 
efforts  were  neither  vigorous  nor  well-directed.  In  no  province  did 
Roman  civilization  produce  greater  effects  than  in  Gaul  ;  many  public 
works  of  stupendous  size  and  immense  utility  w^ere  constructed ;  roads 
were  constructed  and  paved  with  stone  ;  durable  bridges  were  built, 
and  aqueducts  formed  to  supply  the  cities  with  water.  Remains  of 
these  -mighty  works  are  still  to  be  found,  and  they  can  not  be  viewed 
without  wonder  and  admiration. 

Section  III. — Britain. 

Though  Britain  was  not  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province 
until  long  after  the  time  of  Julius  Ctesar,  yet,  as  that  general  brought  it 
nominally  under  subjection,  it  will  be  better  to  descri-be  its  ancient  state 
here  than  to  interrupt  the  history  of  the  empire  in  a  subsequent  chapter 
The  name  of  Britain  was  originally  given  to  the  cluster  of  islands  ir 
the  Atlantic  now  called  British,  the  largest  of  which  bore  the  name  of 
Albion.  The  southern  part  of  Albion,  or  England,  was  originally  colo- 
nized from  Gaul ;  the  tribes  that  inhabited  the  east  and  north  are  said 
to  have  been  of  German  descent ;  and  there  is  a  constant  tradition,  that 
the  Scots  in  the  northwest  came  originally  from  Ireland. 

That  part  of  Britain  now  included  in  the  kingdom  of  England  and 
principality  of  Wales,  was  anciently  divided  among  seventeen  tribes,  to 
whom  probably  some  of  inferior  note  were  subject. 

The  principality  of  Wales,  formerly  comprehending  the  whole  country 
beyond  the  Severn,  was  inhabited,  in  the  Roman  times,  by  the  Silures, 
the  Dem'etsB,  and  the  Ordovices.  The  last-named  tribe  possessed  North 
Wales,  and  long  bade  defiance  to  the  Roman  power  in  their  mountain 
fastnesses.  The  island  of  Mona  (Anglesey),  celebrated  as  the  ancient 
seat  of  the  Druids,  belonged  to  the  Ordovices. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  country  beyond  the  Firths  of  Solway  and  the 
Forth  were  named  Me'tae  and  Caledonii,  but,  in  a  later  age,  the  Picts 
and  Scots.  Juverna,  or  Hiber'nia  [Ireland),  was  known  only  by  name 
to  the  Romans. 

Three  walls,  strengthened  by  castles,  were  successively  raised  to 
check  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  by  the  emperors  Adrian, 
Antoninus,  and  Severus.  The  last  was  the  most  important,  according 
to  Camden,  who  seems  to  have  traced  it  with  great  care.  It  began  at 
Blatobul'giura  (Bulness),  on  the  Irish  sea,  kept  along  the  side  of  Solway 
Firth,  by  Burgh-upon-sands,  to  Lugoval'lum  (Carlisle),  where  it  passed 
the  Ituna  (Eden).  Thence  it  was  carried  on  over  the  little  rivers  Cam- 
beck,  Living,  and  Poltrose,  into  the  Northumbrian  hiUs,  along  which  it 
passed  to  the  German  ocean.  This  wall  was  about  eight  feet  thick 
and  was  protected  by  a  ditsh  twelve  yards  broad. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  345 

When  Britain  was  first  visited  by  the  Romans,  the  inhabitants  had 
made  considerable  advances  in  civilization.  Their  country  was  well 
peopled  and  stocked  with  cattle  ;  their  houses  were  as  good  as  those 
of  the  Gauls,  and  they  used  iron  and  copper  plates  for  money.  They 
made  Utile  use  of  clothes,  instead  of  which  they  painted  and  tattooed 
their  skins.  In  war  they  made  use  of  chariots,  with  sharp  blades  fixed 
to  the  axle-trees,  which  they  drove  at  full  speed  against  the  hostile  ranks. 
Their  chief  trafiic  was  with- the  Gauls  and  the  Phoenicians,  who  came 
to  the  Cassiter'ides  (Sciili/  islands),  for  tin.  Little  is  known  respecting 
their  religion,  except  that  they  were  held  in  mental  thraldom  by  a  caste 
of  priesis  named  Druids,  and  that  they  were  guilty  of  offering  human 
sacrifices  to  their  gods.  Each  tribe  had  its  own  king ;  but  in  cases  of 
emergency,  a  common  chief  was  elected,  who  possessed,  however,  little 
more  than  a  nominal  authority.  The  most  singular  monument  of  the 
Druids  remaining  is  Stonehenge  in  Wiltshire,  a  circular  edifice  of 
enormous  stones,  which  probably  was  the  national  temple.  Britain  was 
finally  abandoned  by  the  Romans  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century. 

Skction  IV. —  The  Northern  Provinces  of  the  Empire. 

Italy,  Greece,  Sicily,, Macedon,  &c.,  having  been  already  described 
in  former  chapters,  we  shall  conclude  the  account  of  the  Roman  empire 
in  Europe  by  a  notice  of  the  countries  south  of  the  Danube,  which 
were  formed  into  provinces  during  the  reign  of  Augus'tus  Caesar. 

Vindelic'ia  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  east  by 
the  tE'uus  {Inn),  on  the  v.'est  by  Helvetia  {Switzerland),  and  on  the 
south  by  Rhae'tia :  it  derived  its  name  from  the  river  Vindo  (the  Wert). 
Its  chief  tribes  were  the  Vindelic'ii  and  Brigan'tii.  Two  others  are 
mentioned  by  Horace  in  his  ode  celebrating  the  conquest  of  this  country 
by  Ti'?crius  and  Drusus,  addressed  to  Augus'tus  : — 

"  Of  late  the  Vindelicians  knew 

Thy  skill  in  arms,  and  felt  thy  sword, 
When  Drusvis  the  Genanni  slew, 

And  Brenni  swift,  a  lawless  horde. 
The  towers  which  covered  all  around 
The  rugged  Alps'  enormous  height, 
By  him  were  levelled  with  the  ground. 

And  more  than  once  confessed  his  might." 

Their  principal  towns  were  Augus'ta  Vindelicorum  {Augsburgh)  and 
Brigan'tia  {Bregenz),  neither  of  which  were  remarkable  in  ancient  his- 
tory.    The  principal  rivers  were  the  Vedo  and  the  Ly'cus  {Lech). 

Rhae'tia  nearly  coincided  with  the  country  now  called  the  territory  of 
the  Grisons;  it  had  Vindelic'ia  on  the  north,  the  JE'mis  {Inn)  on  the 
east,  the  chain  of  the  Alps  from  Lacus  Verbanus  {Logo  Maggiore)  to 
Lacus  Brigantinus  {Lake  of  Constance)  on  the  south,  and  Helvetia  on 
the  west.  The  principal  tribe  were  the  Rhae'ti,  whom  some  have  identi- 
fied with  the  Rasena  or  ancient  Etrurians.  They  were  a  brave,  but 
cruel  people  ;  and  when  they  invaded  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Augus'tus 
Caesar,  their  ravages  exceeded  those  that  had  been  in  earlier  times  per- 
petrated by  the  Gauls. 

The  chief  towns  were  Curia  (Chur),  which  became  the  capital  of  the 


246  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  ' 

province  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  Veldidena  {WildeM)y  and" 
Tridentum  (Trent). 

Nor'icum,  formerly  a  kingdom,  but  afterward  a  Roman  province,  ex- 
tended between  the  Danube  and  the  Alpes  Norise  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Trent  from  the  jE'nus  (/n«)  to  Mons  Cetius  (Kohlenberg),  and  conse- 
quently included  a  great  portion  of  modern  Austria,  the  archbishopric 
of  Saltzburgh,  and  all  Styria  and  Carinthia.  Its  southern  boundaries 
were  the  Julian  Alps  and  the  Savus  (Save).  Its  chief  cities  were,  in 
Nor'icum  Ripense,  or  the  part  bordering  on  the  Danube,  Jovavum  or 
Jovavia  (Saltzburgh),  Boidiirum  (Innstadt),  so  named  from  the  Boii,  the 
most  important  of  the  Noric  tribes  ;  Lentia  (Lenz)  and  Lauriacum 
(Lorch).  In  the  interior,  or  Noricum  Mediterraneum,  we  find  Pons 
JE'ni  (Innspruck),  Vis'celli  (Weltz),  Graviacii  (Gurch),  Agun'tum 
(Innichen),  T euic' nia.  (Villach),  and  Sol'va,  once  the  capital  of  the  country, 
but  long  since  buried  in  its  ruins. 

Pannonia  was  divided  into  Superior  and  Inferior.  The  former  had 
the  Danube  on  the  east  and  north,  the  Ar'rabo  (Raab)  on  the  west,  and 
the  chain  of  Mons  Cetius  (Kahlenberg)  on  the  south.  It  consequently 
comprehended  Carniola,  Croatia,  Windesch,  Mark,  and  part  of  Austria. 
Pannonia  Inferior  had  the  Ar'rabo  on  the  north,  the  Danube  on  the  east, 
and  the  Savus  (Save)  on  the  south.  The  chief  cities  were  Seges'taor 
Sescia  (Sti-ecA:)  on  the  Save;  Amona  (Unterlaubach),  a  Roman  colony; 
Naupor'tum  (Oberlaubacli),  upon  the  river  Naupor'tus  (Laubach)  ;  Vin- 
doniana  or  Vindebona  (Vienna),  obscure  in  ancient  times,  but  now  the 
capital  of  the  Austrian  empire,  Scaraban'tia  (Scarbing)  ;  M.\xx's2t,(Esseg) ; 
Sir'mium  (Sirmich),  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Pannonia  on  the  Save ; 
and  Taurunum  [Belgrade),  an  important  frontier  fortress  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times. 

Moe'sia  was  the  name  given  to  the  country  between  the  conflux  of  the 
Save  and  Danube  and  the  Euxine  sea.  It  was  divided  into  two  unequal 
portions,  Superior  and  Inferior.  Moe'sia  Superior  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  south  by  the  Scordian  mountains,  on  the 
v^est  by  Pannonia,  and  on  the  east  by  the  river  Cebrus  (Ischia).  Its 
chief  cities  were  Singidunum  (Se7nUn)  and  Nais'sus  (Nissa).  This 
province  comprehended  the  countries  now  called  Bosnia  and  Servia. 

Moe'sia  Inferior,  nearly  coinciding  with  the  modern  Bulgaria,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  west  by  the  Cebrus,  on  the 
south  by  Mount  Hsemus  (the  Balkan),  and  on  the  east  by  the  Euxine 
sea.     Its  chief  cities  were  Odes'sus  (Varna)  and  Tomi  (Temeswar). 

The  part  of  lower  Moe'sia  bordering  on  the  Euxine  was  frequently 
named  Pon'tus  ;  and  hence,  Tomi,  the  place  of  the  poet  Ovid's  exile,  is 
called  a  city  of  Pon^tus,  though  it  did  not  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  that 
name.  Tomi  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Medea's  having  cut 
her  brother  Absyr'tus  to  pieces  in  that  place,*  in  order  that  her  ftither's 
pursuit  of  her  might  be  delayed,  while  he  gathered  the  scattered  limbs 
of  his  child.     To  tliis  Ovid  alludes  in  a  well-known  distich  :— 

"  Tomi  its  name  from  horrid  murder  bore, 
For  there  a  ijrother's  limbs  a  sister  tore." 

•  From  rc/ji-a),  to  cut. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  247 

North  of  the  Danube  was  the  province  of  Dacia,  annexed  to  the  Ro 
man  empire  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  Some  geographers  describe  i< 
loosely  as  including  all  the  country  between  the  Borys'thenes  {Diiieper) 
and  the  Dan'ube  ;  but  its  proper  boundaries  were  Mon'tes  Carp'atii 
{the  Krapack  chain)  on  the  north,  the  Tibis'cus  {Theiss)  on  the  west, 
the  Hier'asus  {Pnith)  on  the  east,  and  the  Danube  on  the  south.  I' 
consequently  included  Upper  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Moldavia,  and 
VVallachia.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Getae  by  the  Greeks,  and 
Daci  by  the  Romans  :  they  possessed  no  city  of  importance. 

Thrace  was  long  permitted  to  retain  its  own  sovereigns,  on  the  con- 
dition of  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  Romans  ;  but  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudian  it  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  province. 
It  was  nearly  enclosed  by  the  chain  of  Mount  Hee'ums  and  the  sea. 
The  principal  cities  of  Thrace  were  the  Greek  colonies,  which  have 
already  been  noticed  in  a  preceding  chapter. 

Il'lyricum  is  a  name  sometimes  given  to  all  the  countries  south  of  the 
Danube,  but  it  is  properly  applied  only  to  the  strip  of  land  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  the  Adriatic,  from  the  Rhstian  Alps  to  the  river  Drinus 
(Drino),  and  easterly  to  the  Savus  {Save).  Its  inhabitants  were  re- 
markable for  their  skill  in  naval  architecture  ;  and  infamous  for  their  in- 
veterate attachment  to  piracy.  Their  chief  cities  were  Salona,  Epidau- 
rus  {Ragxisa),  and  Scodra  {Scutari). 

Section  V. — Asiatic  and  African  Provinces. 

The  Roman  provinces  in  Anatolia  were  :  1,  Asia,  as  the  Romans  with 
proud  anticipations  named  the  first  cession  of  country  made  to  them  east 
of  the  iEgean:  2,  Bithynia,  together  with  Paphlagonia  and  part  of 
Pon'tus  :  and  3,  CiUcia,  with  Pisid'ia.  These  provinces  were  in  gen- 
eral the  most  tranquil  portion  of  the  empire  ;  and  the  most  peaceful,  if 
not  the  most  happy  period,  in  the  history  of  Asia  Minor,  was  that  during 
which  it  remained  subject  to  Rome.  No  greater  proof  can  be  given  of 
the  wealth  to  which  individuals  attained,  than  that  the  sepulchres  of 
private  persons,  like  that  of  Icesius,  discovered  by  Mr.  Ainsworth,  rival- 
led those  of  the  ancient  Pontic  kings.  The  various  divisions  of  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  Commagene,  for  the  purpose  of  government, 
can  not  easily  be  enumerated.  At  first,  several  states  were  permitted  to 
retain  a  qualified  independence ;  but  before  the  close  of  the  first  centu- 
ry of  the  Christian  era,  they  were  all  absorbed  in  the  empire.  Arme- 
nia and  Mesopotamia  became  provinces  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and 
part  of  Arabia  paid  nominal  allegiance  to  that  emperor ;  but  these 
acquisitions  were  abandoned  in  the  reign  of  his  successor. 

The  African  provinces  were  :  1,  Egypt,  which  became  a  province 
after  the  battle  of  Actiam:  2,  Cyrenaica,  which  soon  followed  the  fate 
of  Egypt ;  Crete  was  annexed  to  this  government :  3,  Numid'ia  and 
Africa  Proper,  which  were  finally  subdued  by  Julius  Caesar :  and,  4, 
Mauretania,  whose  king  was  dethroned  a.  d.  41,  and  the  country  di- 
vided into  two  provinces,  separated  by  the  river  Muluch'a  (Mahata), 
called  Caesarien'sis  and  Tingitania.  The  chief  towns  in  Mauretania  Cae- 
sarien'sis,  were  Igil'o-'Us  (Zezeli),  Sal'dae  {Delluz),  lom'mum  {Algiers), 
Rususcucu;u  {Koleah^,  Csesarea  {Teunez),  and  Siga  {Sigale).     The  most 


248  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

remarkable  tribe  was  the  Massaesy'li,  on  the  river  Muluch'a,  near  the 
seacoast. 

Mauretania  Tingita'na  derived  its  name  from  its  chief  city  Tin'gis 
{Tangicrs),  on  the  Fretum  Gaditanum  (Straits  of  Gibraltar).  It  con- 
tained also  the  towns  and  ports  of  Busadir  (Melilla),  and  Ab'yla  [Ceuta), 
in  the  Mediterranean.  There  were  besides,  on  the  Atlantic  ocean,  Zilis, 
or  Julia  Constantina  (Arzillo)  ;  Ban'asa  Valen'tia  (Mehedimd),  and  Sala 
(Sallce)  :  but  these  were  scarcely  known  to  the  Romans  until  a  very 
late  period  of  the  empire.  The  Gaetulians,  first  made  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans during  the  Jugurthine  war,  never  were  subdued  by  their  armies ; 
but  in  later  ages  paid  homage  to  the  proconsul  or  prsefect  of  Africa. 

Though  the  Romans  had  thus  succeeded  in  Asia  to  the  great  commer- 
cial marts  of  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Egyptians,  and  had  acquired 
in  Africa  the  ancient  stations  of  the  Carthaginians,  they  made  little  or 
no  effort  to  encourage  traffic.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  opened  a  sin- 
gle new  route  for  trade  ;  and  under  their  government  many  of  the  an- 
cient highways  of  commerce,  particularly  in  Asia,  fell  into  disuse. 
One  principal  cause  of  this  was,  the  distance  of  Rome  from  the  chief 
trading  stations  in  the  eastern  seas,  by  which  the  attention  of  the  ruling 
powers  was  withdrawn  from  the  great  abuses  that  prevailed  in  the  pro- 
vincial administration  and  colonial  government.  This  appears  evident 
from  the  vast  improvement  in  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
which  took  place  immediately  after  the  seat  of  government  was  trans- 
ferred from  Rome  to  Byzantium  (Constatitmople)  ;  and,  however  some 
politicians  may  be  disposed  to  blame  the  division  of  the  empire,  a  slight 
glance  at  the  nations  that  pressed  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Roman  do- 
minions will  show  that  the  interests  and  dangers  of  the  eastern  and 
western  empires  were  so  very  different,  that  the  course  of  poUcy  which 
suited  the  one  would  be  injurious  to  the  other. 

Skction  VI. —  The  Principal  Nations  on  the  Frontiers  of  the  Empire. 

German y  was  a  name  loosely  given  by  the  Romans  to  all  the  coun- 
tries north  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  Sarmatia,  in  as  uncertain  a  sense, 
was  applied  to  the  countries  now  called  Poland  and  Lithuania ;  while 
the  greater  part  of  the  vast  dominions  of  Russia  in  Europe  and  Asia 
were  included  under  the  general  name  of  Scythia,  and  were  almost 
wholly  unknown  in  ancient  times.  In  the  northwest  of  Europe  the 
countries  about  the  Sinus  Codanus  {Baltic  sea),  though  probably  visited 
in  very  ancient  times  by  the  enterprising  Phoenicians,  remained  unvis- 
ited,  or  at  least  unexplored,  by  the  Romans,  who  were  never  remarka- 
ble for  their  zeal  in  maritime  discovery.  Indeed,  they  seem  to  have 
regarded  Scandinavia,  or  Scan'dia  (Sweden),  Nerigon  (Norway),  and 
Erin'gia,  or  Furnin'gia  (Finland),  as  isles  of  the  German  ocean. 
When  Britain  was  circumnavigated,  the  Or'cades  {Orkney  islands)  were 
discovered:  but,  previous  to  that  time,  some  indistinct  account  had 
been  received  of  a  distant  island,  named  Thule,  which  some  beheve  to 
have  been  one  of  the  Zetland  cluster,  and  other.?  Iceland. 

The  Germans  took  their  name  from  their  own  language,  Ghar-mans^ 
signifying  warlike  men,  or  warriors  ;  for,  like  motst  savage  tribes,  they 
principally  prided   themselves  on  their  military  virtues.     They  were 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  349 

called  in  the  earliest  aj^es  Cim'bri  and  Tei/ttnes  by  the  Romans;  but 
it  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  these  may  not  have  been  very  dif- 
ferent races,  accidentally  united  in  a  common  migration.  The  Cim'bri 
gave  their  name  to  the  Chersonesus  Ciin'brica  (^Jutland)  ;  from  that  of 
the  Teu'tones  the  modern  names  Teutschen  and  Dutch  have  manifestly 
been  derived.  A  confederation  of  several  tribes,  formed  in  the  third 
century,  took  the  name  of  Alleman'ni,  or  All-mans,  that  is,  complete 
men,  from  which  the  French  of  the  present  day  call  Germany  Alle- 
masne. 

It  would  be  impossible,  within  our  limits,  to  enumerate  all  the  tribes 
of  ancient  Germany,  but  a  few  of  the  principal  may  be  noticed.  On 
the  east  bank  of  the  AFbis  {Elbe),  between  that  river  and  the  Vistula, 
were  the  Cim'bri  and  Saxones,  of  whom  the  former  were  the  most  re- 
markable in  ancient  times,  and  the  latter  during  the  middle  ages.  West 
of  the  Al'bis  were  the  upper  and  lower  Chauci,  divided  from  each 
other  by  the  Visurgis  {Weser)  ;  and  the  Fris'ii,  separated  from  the 
Chauci  by  the  river  Amasia  {Erus),  whose  territory  still  preserves  the 
name  of  Friesland.  The  Marcoman'ni  anciently  possessed  all  the 
country  between  the  sources  of  the  Rlienus  [Rhine)  and  the  Is'ter,  or 
Danubius  [Danube)  :  they  afterward  fixed  themselves  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  and  also  in  part  of  Gaul,  driving  the  Boii  before  them. 

On  this  side  of  the  Rhine,  between  that  river  and  the  Mosa  (Maese), 
were  the  U'bii,  who  were  invited  by  Agrip'pa  to  this  country  during  the 
reign  of  Augus'tus.  To  commemorate  this  migration  they  named  their 
capital  Colonia  Agrippi'na  [Cologne),  in  honor  of  their  patron.  Higher 
up  the  Rhine,  and  beyond  the  Mosella  [Moselle)  were  the  Treviri, 
whose  chief  city  was  Augusta  Trevirorum  [Triers),  and  some  minor 
tribes,  possessing  the  city  of  Argentoratum,  or  Argentina?  [Strasburgh). 
The  Hercynian  forests  and  mountains,  by  which  the  Romans  seem  to 
have  understood  all  the  unexplored  part  of  eastern  Germany,  appear  to 
have  been  the  original  abode  of  the  Quadi,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Herman- 
diiri,  who  became  very  formidable  to  the  Romans  in  the  age  of  Antoni- 
nes.  The  original  seat  of  the  Longobar'di,  celebrated  in  Italy  under 
the  name  of  Lombards,  was  the  upper  part  of  the  Elbe  :  they  are  said 
to  have  derived  their  national  appellation  from  their  "  long  harts,"  or 
spears  ;  but  others  think  that  they  were  so  called  from  the  length  of 
their  beards  or  from  having  been  formed  by  a  coalition  of  the  Lingones 
and  Bar'di.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  were  the  Gep'idae  ;  and 
it  is  supposed  that  the  first  seat  of  the  warlike  Burgundians  was  on  the 
same  river ;  but  they,  as  well  as  the  Semnones,  had  pushed  forward  to 
the  Elbe  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  iEs'tui,  cele- 
brated for  their  trade  in  amber,  resided  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  sea. 

Beside  the  Hercynian  forest  already  mentioned,  Germany  contained 
Sylva  Melibo'ca(</<e  Hartz),  Sylva  Barcenia  [the  Black  Forest),  Sylva 
Sudeta  [the  Thuringian  Forest),  and  Sylva  Cae'sia  [Forest  of  Teuloberg). 
Most  of  the  rivers  have  been  already  mentioned ;  but  we  must  notice 
the  northern  embouchure  of  the  Rhine,  called  Flavum  Os'tium  ( Vlie), 
in  the  territory  of  the  Batavians  ;  the  I'sela  [Isel),  separating  the  Bruc- 
teri  from  the  Fris'ii ;  the  Lupias  [Lippc),  in  the  territory  of  the  Marsi  •, 
and  the  Viadrus  [Oder),  near  whose  source  many  authors  place  the 
original  habitation  of  the  Burgundians 


850  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

In  considering  the  state  of  ancient  Germany,  it  must  be  Iiome  n 
mind  that  the  tribes  frequently  migrated  from  cne  quarter  to  another 
especially  after  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and  that  the  name  of  a 
principal  tribe,  such  as  that  of  the  Suevi,  was  frequently  given  to  a 
large  confederation.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  Franks 
(free  men),  who  were  not  so  much  a  tribe,  as  a  union  of  several  hordes 
determined  to  maintain  their  national  independence. 

The  relio-ion  of  the  ancient  Germans  seems  to  have  resembled  that 
of  the  Gauls,  except  that  it  was  rather  more  sanguinary,  and  that 
o-reater  regard  was  paid  to  oracles  and  old  prophetesses.  Their  chief 
deity  was  Odin,  or  Woden,  their  god  of  war,  whose  name  is  preserved 
in  our  Woden's  day,  or  Wednesday.  Their  notion  of  future  happiness 
was  to  sit  for  ever  in  Odin's  presence,  quaffing  beer  from  the  sculls  of 
their  enemies.  This  opinion  is  forcibly  expressed  in  the  death-song 
which  Lodbrog  sings  for  himself  in  the  Edda : — 

"  With  flashing  swords  our  might  we  proved ; 
But  this  my  hearty  laughter  moved. 
That  bliss  eternal  shall  be  mine 
Where  the  halls  of  Odin  shine ; 

To  him,  great  sire,  my  deeds  are  known,  . 

For  me  he  has  ^--epared  a  throne, 
Where  richest  ale  incessant  flows 
In  the  hollow  sculls  of  foes. 
The  brave  man  never  shrinks  at  death, 
Gladly  I  resign  my  breath ; 
No  regrets  my  soul  appal 
As  I  haste  to  Odin's  hall." 

This  is  manifestly  the  creed  of  a  savage  race  of  warriors,  and  suctt 
all  the  Germans  were  ;  they  took  no  pleasure  but  in  military  weapons  ; 
they  never  attended  any  festival  or  public  assembly  without  arms ;  and 
so  sacred  was  the  sword  among  them,  that  their  most  solemn  oath  was 
taken  by  kissing  its  naked  blade. 

In  Asia,  the  Roman  empire  was  bounded  by  the  wild  tribes  of  the 
Caucasus,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Armenia  and  Parthia.  On  the  south  it 
was  limited  by  the  unconquered  Arabs,  who  defied  every  effijrt  made  to 
reduce  them  to  obedience. 

India  became  known  to  the  Romans  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt ; 
and  some  efforts  were  made  to  establish  an  extensive  commerce  with 
that  empire  by  the  route  of  the  Red  sea,  in  the  reigns  of  the  later  em- 
perors.* It  was  divided  into  India  Proper,  or  India  at  this  side  of  the 
Ganges,  whose  western  coast  {Malabar)  appears  to  have  been  pretty 
well  known ;  and  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  which  included  the  Bur- 
man  empire  and  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  The  extreme  south  of  the 
Indian  peninsula,  called  Regio  Pandionis  {the  Carnatic),  was  said  to 
have  been  the  seat  of  a  powerful  and  enlightened  dynasty,  whose  capi- 
tal was  Madura.  Malacca  was  known  as  the  Chersonesus  Aurea 
{<f olden  peninsula)  ;  the  island  of  Ceylon  was  called  Taprobane  or  Sal'- 
ice,  and  that  of  Sumatra,  Labodii  or  Hor'dei. 

The  frontier  races  of  the  empire  in  Africa  have  been  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  section. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  35 1 

Section   YW.—  Topographxj  of  the  City  of  Rome. 

Rome  was  oiiginally  built  in  a  square  form,  whence  it  is  called  Roma 
Quadrata,  on  the  Palatine  hill.  When  the  city  was  founded,  and  when 
*t  was  at  any  subsequent  period  enlarged,  the  first  care  was  to  mark 
out  the  Pomcc'rium,  a  consecrated  space  round  the  walls  of  the  city  on 
which  it  was  unlawful  to  erect  any  edifice.  This  custom  manifestly 
arose  from  the  necessity  of  preventing  besiegers  from  finding  shelter 
near  the  fortifications  ;  and  in  this,  as  in  a  thousand  other  instances,  the 
early  legislators  gave  utility  the  sanction  of  superstition.  A  set  form 
was  prescribed  for  marking  the  Pomoj'rium  ;  a  bullock  and  heifer  were 
yoked  to  a  bronze  or  copper  ploughshare,  and  a  furrow  was  drawn 
marking  the  course  of  the  future  wall.  The  plough  was  so  guided  that 
all  the  sods  fell  to  the  inside,  and  if  any  went  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion, care  was  taken  that  they  should  be  turned  into  the  proper  way. 
As  the  plough  was  sacred,  it  would  have  been  profanation  if  anything 
impure  passed  over  the  ground  which  it  had  once  touched ;  but  as 
things  clean  and  unclean  must  necessarily  pass  into  a  city,  when  the 
plough  came  to  a  place  where  the  builders  designed  to  place  a  gate,  it 
was  taken  up,  and  carried  to  the  spot  where  the  wall  was  resumed. 
Hence  the  Latins  named  a  gate  porta,  from  the  verb  portare,  to  carry. 
The  comitmm,  or  place  of  public  assembly,  was  next  consecrated :  the 
most  remarkable  part  of  this  ceremony  was  the  preparation  of  a  vault, 
named  mundits,  in  which  were  deposited  the  first-fruits  of  all  things 
used  to  support  life,  and  a  portion  of  each  colonist's  native  earth.  To 
this  structure  many  superstitious  notions  were  attached  ;  it  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  entrance  to  the  invisible  world  ;  and  it  was  opened  three 
days  in  the  year,  with  many  solemn  forms,  to  admit  the  spirits  of  the 
deceased. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  extension  of  the  Pomoe'rium  was  occa- 
sioned by  enclosing  the  Quirinal  hill  for  the  Sabines,  when,  under 
Tatius,  they  united  themselves  to  the  people  of  Rom'ulus.  The' next 
addition  was  the  Coelian  hill,  on  which  the  followers  of  Cce'les  Viben'- 
na,  whoever  that  Etruscan  adventurer  may  have  been,  erected  their 
habi^.-Ation.  Tul'lus  Hos'tilius  enclosed  the  Viminal  hill  after  the  de- 
struction of  Al'ba,  to  which  An'cus  Mar'tius  added  the  Aventine,  which 
was  regarded  as  the  pecuUar  habitation  of  the  plebeians.  In  the  reign 
of  the  first  Tar'quin,  Rome  was  increased  by  the  Esquiline  and  Capito- 
line  ;  these  completed  the  number  of  the  seven  hills  for  which  the  city 
was  celebrated.  At  a  much  later  period  the  Pincian  and  Vatican 
mounts  were  added  ;  and  these,  with  the  Janic'ulum  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Tiber,  made  the  number  ten. 

An'cus  Mar'tius  was  the  first  who  fortified  the  city  with  outworks, 
especially  by  raising  a  castle  and  garrison  on  the  Janic'ulum,  which 
was  connected  with  Rome  by  a  wooden  bridge  {pons  suhlicius).  But 
the  elder  Tar'quin  was  the  first  who  beautified  his  capital  with  splen- 
did buildings,  not  only  ornamental,  but  useful.  To  him  the  great  sewer 
by  which  the  city  was  drained,  whose  vast  proportions  still  claim  ad- 
miration, is  generally  attributed. 

Though  Rome  began  to  be  more  regularly  built  when  it  was  re- 
stored after  the  departure  of  the  Gauls,  and  many  splendid  edifices 


252  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

both  public  and  private,  were  erected,  when  wea.th  was  so  vastly  m 
creased  as  it  must  have  been  after  the  conquest  of  Carthage  and  west 
ern  Asia ;  it  could  scarcely  be  called  a  splendid  city  before  the  reign 
of  Augus'tus,  who  boasted  that  "  he  found  it  brick,  and  left  it  marble." 
When  Corinth  was  subdued  by  Mum'mius,  so  little  were  the  Romans 
acquainted  with  the  fine  arts,  that  many  precious  pieces  of  statuary 
were  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  their  materials  ;  but  from  that  time  taste 
was  improved  by  a  more  constant  intercourse  with  the  Greeks,  es- 
pecially when  Athens  became  the  university  of  the  empire.  But  the 
long  civil  wars  between  the  aristocratic  and  democratic  factions  pre- 
vented the  development  of  these  improvements,  vmtil  the  battle  of 
Ac'tium  gave  Rome  tranquillity  and  a  master.  In  the  days  of  its  great- 
est prosperity  the  circumference  of  Rome,  enclosed  by  walls,  was  about 
twenty  miles  •  but  there  were  also  very  extensive  suburbs.  The  city 
had  thirty  gates,  some  authors  say  more,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
were  the  Tergeminal,  the  Carmental,  the  Triumphal,  and  the  Naval ;  to 
which  we  may  add  the  Cape'na,near  the  great  aqueduct. 

The  most  remarkable  buildings  were  the  amphitheatres,  the  Capitol 
with  its  temples,  the  senate-house,  and  the  forum. 

The  first  amphitheatre  was  the  Cir'cus  Max'imus,  erected  by  Tar- 
quinius  Priscus  ;  but  so  enlarged  by  subsequent  additions,  that  it  was 
capable  of  containing  two  hundred  thousand  spectators.  In  the  arena 
were  exhibited  the  cruel  fights  of  gladiators,  in  which  the  Romans  took 
a  pleasure  equally  infamous  and  extravagant,  together  with  races,  ex- 
hibitions of  strange  animals,  and  combats  of  wild  beasts.  A  still  larger 
edifice  was  erected  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian, 
whose  massive  ruins  are  called  the  Colos'seum.  Theatres,  public 
baths,  and  buildings  ibr  the  exhibition  of  naumachiae,  or  naval  combats, 
were  erected  by  the  emperors,  who  seemed  anxious  to  compensate  the 
people  for  the  loss  of  their  liberty  by  the  magnificence  of  their  public 
shows  and  entertainments. 

The  Capitol  was  commenced  on  the  Satumian  hill,  which  received 
the  name  Capitoline  from  a  human  head  being  found  by  the  laborers 
digging  the  foundation,  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin'ius  Pris-'cus.  It  was 
erected  on  the  northern  summit  of  the  hill ;  the  rocky  eminence  to  the 
south  wjs  called  the  Tarpeian  cliff,  to  commemorate  the  treason  of 
Tarpeia ;  and  public  criminals  were  frequently  executed  by  being  pre- 
cipitated from  its  peak.  The  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  was  usually 
regarded  as  the  national  sanctuary  of  the  Romans :  it  was  begun  by 
Tarquin'ius  Pris^cus,  and  finished  by  Tarquin'ius  Super^bus,  and  it  was 
almost  yearly  improved  by  the  rich  presents  that  successful  generals 
and  foreign  princes,  eager  to  conciliate  the  Romans,  offered  as  A'otive 
gifts.  Augus'tus  alone  presented  gold  and  jewels  exceeding  five  thou- 
sand pounds  in  value.  During  the  civil  wars  between  Marius  and 
Sylla  this  temple  was  burnt  to  the  ground  ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  with 
greater  splendor ;  and  Cicero  informs  us,  that  the  statue  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus  was  erected  on  its  pedestal  at  the  very  time  that  the  con- 
spiracy of  Cat'iline  was  discovered.  It  was  destroyed  twice  again 
during  the  reigns  of  Vespasian  and  Domitian,  but  was  restored  each 
time  with  additional  splendor.  The  Sibylline  books,  and  other  oracles, 
supposed  to  contain  important  predictions  respecting  the  fate  of  the  city^ 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


253 


were  preserved  in  the  sanctuary,  under  the  charge  of  fifteen  persons  o\ 
the  hisihest  rank,  called  the  Qumdecemviri.  Here,  also,  were  pre- 
served the  chronological  archives  of  the  city.  A  nail  was  annually 
driven  into  the  temple  by  the  chief  magistrate  ;  and  this  curious  custom 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  rude  mode  of  marking  the  lapse  of 
time. 

There  were  several  other  temples  on  this  hill,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  was  that  of  Jupiter  Feret'rius,  erected  by  Rom'ulus  where  the 
spolia  opima  Avere  deposited.  The  spolia  opima  were  the  trophies  pie- 
sented  by  a  Roman  general  who  had  slain  the  leader  of  the  enemy  with 
his  own  hand  ;  they  were  only  thrice  offered,  by  Rom'idus,  Cossus,  and 
Marccllus.  From  the  feret'rum,  or  bier,  on  which  these  spoils  were 
borne  to  the  temple,  the  deity  was  called  Feret'rius. 

The  Capitol  was  the  citadel  of  Rome,  except  la  the  reign  of  Numa, 
when  the  Quir'inal  was  chosen  as  the  chief  place  of  strength.  This 
circumstance  tends  greatly  to  confirm  Niebuhr's  theory,  that  an  ancient 
Sabine  town,  named  Quir'ium,  stood  on  that  hill,  which  modern  writers 
confounded  with  Cures  :  perhaps  the  double-faced  Janus,  whose  temple 
was  closed  during  peace,  was  the  symbol  of  the  united  cities,  and  the 
opening  of  the  temple  gates  was  to  enable  the  inhabitants  of  the  one  in 
time  of  war  to  assist  the  other. 

In  the  valley  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills  was  the 
forum,  or  place  of  public  assembly  and  great  market.  It  was  sur- 
rounded with  temples,  halls  for  the  administration  of  justice,  called 
basiliccB,  and  public  offices  ;  it  was  also  adorned  with  statues  erected  in 
honor  of  eminent  warriors  and  statesmen,  and  with  various  trophies 
from  conquered  nations.  Among  these  memorials  of  conquest  were 
several  rostra,  or  prows  of  ships  taken  at  Antium,  which  were  used  to 
ornament  the  pulpits  from  which  the  magistrates  and  public  orators 
harangued  the  general  assemblies  of  the  people  :  from  this  custom  the 
phrase  "  to  mount  the  rostrum"  originated.  In  the  middle  of  the  forum 
was  a  drained  marsh,  called  the  Curtian  lake,  to  which  a  singular  le- 
gend was  attached.  Traditions  recorded  that  an  immense  chasm  had 
suddenly  opened  in  this  place,  which  the  augurs  declared  could  not  be 
closed  untix  Jie  most  precious  things  in  Rome  were  thrown  into  it. 
Cur'tius,  a  Roman  knight,  armed  and  mounted,  leaped  into  the  yawning 
pit,  declaring  that  nothing  was  more  valuable  than  courage  and  patriot- 
ism ;  after  which  it  is  added  that  the  fissure  closed.  A  much  more 
probable  account  is,  that  the  place  derived  its  name  from  a  Sabine 
general  named  Cur'tius,  smothered  there  while  the  place  was  as  yet  a 
swamp. 

In  the  forum  was  the  celebrated  temple  of  Janus,  built  entirely  of 
bronze,  supposed  to  have  been  erected  during  the  reign  of  Niima.  Its 
gates  were  only  closed  three  times  in  eight  centuries,  so  incessant  were 
the  wars  in  which  the  Romans  were  engaged.  Not  far  from  ihib  was 
the  temple  of  Concord,  in  which  the  senate  frequently  assembled : 
storks  were  encouraged  to  build  in  the  roof  of  the  edifice,  on  account 
of  the  social  instincts  attributed  to  those  birds.  In  the  same  quarter 
of  the  city  was  the  temple  of  Ves'ta,  where  a  perpetual  fire  was  main- 
tained by  the  Vestal  virgins  :  in  it  were  said  to  be  preserved  the  Palla- 


254  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

diiim,  or  sacred  image  of  Pal'] as  Min'erva,  on  which  the  fate  of  Troy 
depended,  and  other  relics  consecrated  by  superstition. 

The  senate-house  was  above  the  pulpits  belonging  to  the  public 
orators  :  it  was  said  to  have  been  originally  erected  by  Tul'lus  Hostil'- 
ius :  but  the  senate  had  several  other  places  of  meeting,  frequently  as- 
sembling in  the  temples.  Near  it  was  the  c*  mitium,  or  court  in  which 
the  patrician  curicB  were  convened :  it  was  not  roofed  until  the  end  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  soon  after  which  the  comilia  curidta  fell  grad- 
ually into  disuse.  This  space,  before  it  was  covered,  was  called  a 
temple  ;  because  templum  properly  signifies  not  merely  an  edifice,  but 
an  enclosure  consecrated  by  the  augurs.  The  principal  theatres  and 
public  baths  were  erected  in  this  vicinity. 

The  elections  of  magistrates,  reviews  of  troops,  and  the  census  or 
registration  of  the  citizens,  were  held  in  the  Cam'pus  Mar'tius,  which 
was  also  the  favorite  exercise-ground  of  the  young  nobles.  It  was 
originally  a  large  common,  which  had  formed  part  of  the  estate  of  the 
younger  Tar'quin,  and  being  confiscated  after  the  banishment  of  that 
monarch,  was  dedicated  to  the  god  of  war,  because  the  Romans  be- 
lieved Mars  to  be  the  father  of  their  founder.  It  long  remained  un- 
improved ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Augus'tus  it  began  to  be  surrounded  by 
several  splendid  edifices ;  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  vvere  planted  in 
different  parts,  and  porticoes  erected,  under  which  the  citizens  might 
continue  their  exercises  in  rainy  weather.  Most  of  these  improvements 
were  due  to  Mar'cus  Agrip'pa,  the  b-est  general  and  wisest  statesman 
in  the  court  of  Augus'tus.  He  erected,  near  the  Cam'pus  Martins,  the 
celebrated  Pantheon,  or  temple  of  all  the  gods ;  the  most  perfect  and 
splendid  monument  of  ancient  Rome  that  has  survived  the  ravages  of 
time.*  At  present  it  is  used  as  a  Christian  church,  and  is  universally 
admired  for  its  circular  form,  and  the  beautiful  dome  that  forms  its  roof. 
Near  the  Pantheon  were  the  gardens  and  public  baths,  which  Agrip'pa 
at  his  death  bequeathed  to  the  Roman  people. 

Perhaps  no  public  edifices  at  Rome  were  more  remarkable  than  the 
aqueducts  for  supplying  the  city  with  water.  Pure  streams  were  sought 
at  a  great  distance,  and  conveyed  in  these  artificial  channels,  supported 
by  arches,  many  of  which  were  more  than  a  hundred  feet  high,  over 
Bteep  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and,  what  was  still  more  difficult,  dan 
gerous  morasses,  which  less  enterprising  architects  would  have  deemed 
insuperable.  The  first  aqueduct  was  erected  during  the  censorship  of 
Ap'pius  Caj'cus,  about  four  hundred  years  after  the  foundation  of  the 
city  ;  but  under  the  emperors  not  fewer  than  twenty  of  these  stupendous 
and  useful  structures  were  raised,  wliich  brought  such  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  to  the  metropolis,  that  rivers  seejned  to  flow  through 
the  streets  and  sewers.  Even  at  the  present  day,  when  only  three  of 
the  aqueducts  remain,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  the  neglect  of  rulers, 
and  the  ravages  of  barbarians,  no  city  in  Europe  has  a  better  supply  of 
wholesome  water  than  Rome. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  all  the  public  buildings  that  deco- 
rated "  the  Eternal  City  ;"  we  may  therefore  conclude  by  observing 
that  Rome,  when  in  the  zenith  of  its  glory,  contained  four  hundred  and 

•  The  CoUosseum  m  the  Regent's  Park  is  built  on  the  model  of  the  Pantheon. 


ROMAN  EMPlRii.  25A 

twenty  temples,  five  regular  theatres,  two  amphitheatres,  and  seven  cir- 
cuses of  vast  extent :  there  were  sixteen  public  baths,  built  of  marble, 
and  furnished  with  every  convenience  that  could  be  desired.  From 
the  aqueducts  a  prodigious  number  of  fountains  were  supplied,  many 
of  which  were  remarkable  for  their  architectural  beauty.  The  pala- 
ces, public  halls,  columns,  porticoes,  and  obelisks,  were  without  num- 
ber ;  and  to  these  must  be  added  the  triumphal  arches  erected  by  the 
later  emperors. 

The  public  roads  in  the  various  parts  of  the  empire,  but  more  espe- 
cially in  Italy,  though  less  ostentatious  than  the  aqueducts,  were  not 
inferior  to  them  in  utility  and  costliness.  Of  these  the  most  remarka- 
ble was  the  Appian  road,  from  Rome  to  Brundusium,  through  the 
Pomptine  marshes,  which  were  kept  well  drained  during  the  flourish 
ing  ages  of  the  empire,  but  by  subsequent  neglect  became  a  pestilential 
swamp.  This  road  extended  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  was 
paved  through  its  entire  length  with  enormous  square  blocks  of  hard 
stone.  Nineteen  centuries  have  elapsed  since  it  was  formed,  and  yet 
many  parts  of  it  still  appear  nearly  as  perfect  as  when  it  was  first 
made. 

Rome  was  inferior  to  Athens  in  architectural  beauty,  but  it  far  sur- 
passed it  in  works  of  public  utility.  Every  succeeding  emperor  deemed 
it  necessary  to  add  something  to  the  edifices  that  had  been  raised  for 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  citizens :  even  after  the  seat  of 
government  had  been  transferred  to  Constantinople,  we  find  the  son  of 
Constantine  evincing  his  gratitude  for  the  reception  he  met  with  in  the 
ancient  capital,  by  sending  thither  two  magnificent  obelisks  from  Alex- 
oidria  in  Egypt. 


956  ANCIENT  HIST 0117 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Section  I. —  The  Reigns   of  the    Family  of  the  Ccesars. 

FROM  B.   C.   30    TO   A.   D.   96. 

Though  the  battle  of  Ac'tium  made  Octavius  Caesar  sole  sov«reign 
of  the  empire,  the  forms  of  the  republic  were  faithfully  preserved  ;  the 
senate  sat  as  a  council  of  state,  and,  though  little  weight  was  attached 
to  its  deliberations,  the  freedom  of  speech  and  comment  preaerv^ed  the 
government  from  sinking  into  absolute  despotism.  With  supreme 
power,  Octavius,  or  Augus'tus,  as  he  was  about  this  time  named  by  the 
senate,  assumed  an  entirely  new  character ;  the  cruelty  with  which  he 
may  justly  be  reproached  in  the  early  part  of  his  career  disappeared ; 
he  became  a  mild  and  merciful  ruler,  truly  anxious  to  insure  the  happi- 
ness of  the  people  intrusted  to  his  charge.  Under  such  a  benignant 
administration,  the  Romans  ceased  to  regret  their  ancient  freedom,  if, 
indeed,  such  a  term  can  be  applied  to  the  oppressive  government  estab- 
lished by  the  aristocracy  during  the  preceding  century ;  and  before  the 
close  of  the  first  emperor's  reign,  the  last  traces  of  the  republican  spirit 
had  disappeared.  It  is  said  that  Augus'tus  at  first  wished  to  resign  his 
power,  after  the  example  of  Syl'la ;  but  was  dissuaded  by  his  friends 
Agrip'pa  and  Mecas'nas,  who  represented  to  him,  with  great  truth,  that 
the  Roman  state  could  no  longer  be  governed  by  its  old  constitution, 
and  that  he  would  retire  only  to  make  room  for  another  master.  He 
went  through  the  form,  however,  of  an  abdication  in  the  senate ;  but, 
on  the  urgent  request  of  that  body,  he  resumed  his  sway ;  instead, 
however,  of  taking  the  supreme  authority  for  life,  he  would  only  accept 
it  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  This  example  was  followed  by  the  succeed- 
ing emperors,  and  gave  rise  to  the  sacra  decenndlia,  festivals  celebrated 
at  each  renewal  of  the  imperial  authority. 

Amid  all  the  adulations  of  the  senate  and  people,  Augus'tus  felt  that 
it  was  to  tlie  army  he  was  indebted  for  empire,  and  therefore  exerted 
himself  diligently  to  attach  the  soldiers  to  his  interest.  He  dispersed 
his  veterans  over  Italy  in  thirty-two  colonies,  dispossessing,  in  many 
places,  the  ancient  inhabitants,  to  make  room  for  these  settlers.  He 
maintained  seventeen  legions  in  Europe ;  eight  on  the  Rhine,  four  or 
the  Danv>be,  three  in  Spain,  and  two  in  Dalmatia.  Eight  more  were 
kept  in  Asia  and  Africa :  so  that  the  standing  army  of  the  empire 
exceeded  one  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  men.     Twelve  cohorts 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  2a/ 

aimoAritirin;  to  about  ten  thousand  men,  were  quartered  in  Rome  and  i.a 
ncmitv ;  nine  of"  these,  called  the  pra^-iorian  bands,  were  intended  lo 
protect  the  emperor's  person,  the  others  were  destined  for  the  guard  of 
the  city.  These  household  troops  became  afterward  the  author  of  many 
ciumges  and  revohitions,  until  they  were  all  dismissed  by  Constantino 
ihe  Great  (a.  d.  312).  Two  powerful  fleets  were  established  in  tho 
Italian  seas ;  one  at  Ravenna,  to  guard  the  Adriatic,  the  other  at  Mise- 
iium,  to  protect  the  western  Mediterranean.  It  is  calculated  that  tbu 
revenues  of  the  empire  at  this  time  exceeded  forty  millions  sterling  ; 
but  this  sum  was  not  more  than  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses  of  th<c 
::ivil,  naval,  and  military  establishments,  and  of  the  public  works  un- 
dertaken to  adorn  the  metropolis. 

Some  disturbances  in  Spain  and  Gaul  induced  the  emperor  to  .rosa 
ihe  Alps  and  Pyrenees ;  he  subdued  the  Cantabrians,  who  inhabited 
the  province  now  called  Biscay  (a  country  whose  mountains  and  defiles 
have  always  proved  formidable  obstacles  to  an  invading  army),  and  the 
Asturians.  To  restrain  these  tribes  in  future,  he  erected  several  new 
fortified  cities,  of  wliich  the  most  remarkable  were  Caesarea  Augus'ta 
(^SarciiTossa)  and  Augus'ta  Emer'ita  (Mnrida),  so  called  because  it  was 
colonized  by  the  veteran  soldiers  [emeriti).  While  resting  at  Tar'raco 
{Tarragona)  from  the  fatigues  of  his  campaign,  Augus''tus  received  am- 
bassadors from  the  most  remote  nations,  the  Scythians,  the  Sarmatians, 
the  Indians,  and  even  the  Seres,  who  inhabited  nortiiern  China. 

On  his  recovery  from  a  fit  of  illness  which  spread  universal  alarm 
throughout  the  empire,  the  senate  conferred  the  tribuneship  for  life 
upon  Augus'tus,  which  rendered  his  person  sacrosanct.  This  dignity 
was  henceforth  annexed  to  the  empire,  and  consequently  all  attempts 
against  the  life  of  the  sovereign  became  high  treason  (J.<Esa  majesias). 
At  the  same  time  he  declined  the  title  of  dictator,  which  had  been  ren- 
dered odious  by  the  cruelties  of  Syl'la.  Having  made  a  tour  in  the 
east  of  the  empire,  he  was  overwhelmed  with  adulations  by  the  degen- 
erate Greeks  (b.  c.  20) ;  but  the  honor  most  gratifying  to  him  and  the 
Roman  people  was  the  restoration  of  the  standards  that  had  been  taken 
from  Cras'sus.  Oa  his  return  to  Italy,  he  drove  back  the  Rhastiana, 
who  had  invaded  the  peninsula,  and  intrusted  their  subjugation  to  Tibc 
rius  and  Drusus  Nero,  his  step-sons,  youths  of  great  promise  and 
vralor.  They  succeeded  in  conquering  Vindelicia  and  Nor'icum ;  but 
their  efforts  to  subdue  Germany  were  baffled  by  the  undaunted  valor 
of  the  native  tribes,  and  the  great  difficulties  of  the  country,  whoso 
forests  and  marshes  rendered  discipline  unavailing. 

When  the  second  decennial  period  of  the  imperial  authority  termma^ 
ted,  Augus'tus,  harassed  by  domestic  calamities,  as  well  as  the  cares  oi 
empire,  seemed  really  anxious  to  resign,  and  enjoy  the  quiet  of  domes- 
tic life  ;  but  the  character  of  Tiberius,  now  generally  regarded  as  his 
successor,  gave  so  much  alarm  to  the  senate  and  people,  that  they 
cordially  joined  in  supplicating  the  emperor  to  continue  his  reign.  The 
greatest  calamity  he  had  to  endure  was  the  disgraceful  conduci  of  luo 
daughter  Julia,  whose  scandalous  debaucheries  fflled  Rome  with  horror  : 
Bhe  and  the  partners  of  her  crimes  were  banished  to  various  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  some  of  her  paramours  were  put  to  death. 

When  peace  was  established  in  every  part  of  the  Roman  domimoiis 

17 


2:>«  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Augiis'tus  closed  the  temple  of  Janus,  and  issued  a  decree  for  a  general 
census,  or  enrolment,  of  all  his  subjects.  It  was  at  this  period  that 
lesus  Christ  was  born  ;  and  thus,  literally,  was  his  advent  the  signal  of 
"  on  earth  peace,  and  good  will  toward  men." 

The  great  prosperity  of  the  reign  of  Augus'tus  was  first  interrupted 
by  the  rebellion  of  the  Germans,  which  the  extortions  of  Quintil'ius 
Var'us  provoked.  Armin'ius,  a  young  prince  of  the  Cafti,  united  his 
countrymen  m  a  secret  confederacy ;  and  then,  pretending  friendship  to 
Var'us,  conducted  him  into  the  depths  of  a  forest,  where  his  troops 
could  neither  fight  nor  retreat.  In  this  situation  Armin'ius  attacked  the 
Romans,  from  whose  camp  he  stole  by  night,  and  so  harassed  them  that 
most  of  the  oflicers  slew  themselves  in  despair  (a.  d.  10).  The  legion- 
aries, thus  left  without  leaders,  were  cut  to  pieces ;  and  thus  the 
Romans  received  the  greatest  overthrow  that  they  had  suffered  since  the 
defeat  of  Cras'sus.  When  the  news  of  this  calamity  was  brought  to 
Rome,  everybody  expected  that  the  Germans  M^ould  immediately  cross 
•he  Rhine,  and  advance  against  the  city.  Augus'tus,  though  over- 
whelmed with  sorrow,  made  every  exertion  to  allay  the  general  con- 
sternation :  he  sent  his  son-in-law  and  heir,  Tiberius,  to  guard  the 
Rhine  ;  but  he  prohibited  him  from  following  the  wild  tribes  to  their 
fastnesses.  For  several  months  the  emperor  abandoned  himself  to 
transports  of  grief,  during  which  he  frequently  exclaimed,  "  Var'us,  re- 
store me  my  legions !"  and  he  observed  the  fatal  day  as  a  mournful  so- 
lemnity until  his  death.  This  event  probably  tended  to  hasten  his 
dissolution  ;  he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  attack  of  illness  at  Naples, 
and  as  he  was  returning  home  to  the  capital,  the  disease  compelled  him 
to  stop  at  Nola,  in  Campania,  where  he  expired  (a.  d.  14).  It  was  cur- 
rently reported  that  the  empress  Liv'ia  accelerated  his  death  by  admin- 
istering poisoned  figs,  in  order  to  secure  the  succession  for  Tiberius. 

Tiberius  Claudius  Nero,  or,  as  he  was  called  after  his  adoption, 
Augus'tus  Tiberius  Cse'sar,  commenced  his  reign  by  procuring  the 
murder  of  young  Agrip'pa,  grandson  of  the  late  emperor,  whom  he 
dreaded  as  a  formidable  rival.  As  soon  as  his  accession  was  known  at 
Rome,  the  consuls,  senators,  and  knights,  ran  headlong  into  slavery 
pretending  to  hail  Tiberius  with  extravagant  joy,  while  they  professed 
equally  extravagant  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  Augus'tus.  Tiberius  met 
them  with  duplicity  equal  to  their  own  :  he  affected  to  decline  the  sov- 
ereign power.;  but,  after  long  debates,  allowed  himself  to  be  won  over 
by  the  general  supplications  of  the  senators.  Having  bound  himself 
by  oath  never  to  depart  from  the  regulations  of  his  predecessor,  he  ex- 
erted himself  to  win  the  affections,  or  rather  disarm  the  suspicions,  of 
the  virtuous  German'icus,  whom  Augus'tus  had  compelled  him  to  declare 
his  heir.  But  the  jealousies  of  the  emperor  were  greatly  aggravated 
by  a  mutiny  of  the  troops  in  Germany,  who  offered  to  raise  German'icus 
to  the  throne  ;  and  though  he  firmly  refused,  and  severely  rebuked  their 
disloyalty,  yet  Tiberius  thenceforth  was  resolved  upon  his  destruc- 
tion. The  glory  wliich  the  young  prince  acquired  in  several  successful 
campaigns  against  the  Germans,  at  length  induced  the  emperor  to  recall 
him  to  Rome,  under  the  pretence  of  rewarding  him  with  a  triumph. 
But  Tiberius  soon  became  anxious  to  remove  from  Rome  a  person  whose 
mildness  and  virtue  were  so  powerfully  contrasted  with  his  own  tyranny 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  259 

ftnd  debauchery :  he  appointed  him  governor  of  the  eastern  provinces  ; 
but  at  the  same  time  he  sent  Piso,  with  his  infamous  wife  Plancina,  into 
Syria,  secretly  instructing  them  to  thwart  German'icus  in  all  his  under- 
takings. The  wicked  pair  obeyed  these  atrocious  commands ;  and  the 
brave  prince,  after  undergoing  many  mortifications,  at  last  sunk  under 
them.  Attacked  by  a  severe  disease,  aggravated  by  suspicions  of  Piso'a 
treachery,  whom  he  believed  to  have  compassed  his  death  by  magic  or 
by  poison,  he  sent  for  his  wife  Agrippina ;  and  having  besought  her  to 
humble  her  haughty  spirit  for  the  sake  of  their  children,  expired,  to  the 
general  grief  of  the  empire  (a.  d.  19).  His  ashes  were  brought  to 
Rome  by  Agrippina ;  and  though  she  arrived  in  the  very  middle  of  the 
Saturnalia,  the  mirth  usual  at  that  festival  was  laid  aside,  and  the  whole 
city  went  into  mourning. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  Tiberius  had  affected  to  imitate  the 
clemency  of  Augus'tus  ;  but  he  soon  began  to  indulge  his  natural  cruelty 
and  many  of  the  most  eminent  nobles  were  put  to  death  under  pre- 
tence of  high  treason.  The  emperor's  depravity  was  exceeded  by  tha. 
of  his  minister,  the  infamous  Sejanus,  whose  name  has  passed  into  a 
proverb.  This  ambitious  favorite  secretly  aspired  at  the  empire,  and 
applied  himself  to  win  the  favor  of  the  praetorian  guards :  he  is  also  ac- 
cused of  having  procured  the  death  of  Drusus,  the  emperor's  son,  and 
of  having  tried  to  destroy  Agrippina  and  her  children.  But  his  most 
successful  project  was  the  removal  of  Tiberius  from  Rome,  persuading 
him  that  he  would  have  more  freedom  to  indulge  his  depraved  passions 
in  Campania  than  in  the  capital.  The  emperor  chose  for  his  retreat 
the  little  island  of  Cap'reas,  where  he  wallowed  in  the  most  disgusting 
and  unnatural  vices  :  while  Sejanus,  with  an  entire  army  of  spies  and 
informers,  put  to  death  the  most  eminent  Romans  after  making  them 
undergo  the  useless  mockery  of  a  trial.  Tiberius,  however,  soon  began 
to  suspect  his  minister,  and  secret  warnings  were  given  him  of  the 
dangerous  projects  that  Sejanus  had  formed.  It  was  apparently  neces- 
sary, however,  to  proceed  with  caution,  and  the  emperor  felt  his  way 
by  withdrawing  some  of  the  honors  he  had  conferred.  Finding  that  the 
people  gave  no  signs  of  discontent,  Tiberius  sent  the  commander  of  the 
preetorian  guards  privately  to  Rome  with  a  letter  to  the  senate,  instruct- 
ing him  to  inform  Sejanus  that  it  contained  an  earnest  recommendation 
to  have  him  invested  with  the  tribunitian  power.  The  minister,  deceived 
by  this  hope,  hastily  convened  the  senate,  and  on  presenting  himself  to 
that  body,  was  surrounded  by  a  horde  of  flatterers,  congratulating  him 
on  his  new  dignity.  But  when  the  fatal  epistle  was  read,  in  which  he 
was  accused  of  treason,  and  orders  given  for  his  arrest,  he  was  imme- 
diately abandoned,  and  those  who  had  been  most  servile  in  their  flat- 
teries became  loudest  in  their  invectives  and  execrations.  A  hurried 
decree  was  passed  condemning  him  to  death,  and  was  put  in  execution 
the  very  same  day  ;  a  general  slaughter  of  his  friends  and  relations  fol- 
lowed ;  his  innocent  children,  though  of  very  tender  years,  were  put  to 
death  with  circumstances  of  great  barbarity ;  and  the  numerous  statues 
that  had  been  erected  to  his  honor  were  broken  to  pieces  by  the  fickle 
multitude.  This  memorable  example  of  the  instability  of  human  gran- 
deur is  powerfully  described  by  Juvenal,  in  his  satire  on  the  Vanity  of 
Human  Wishes.     The  passage  is  thus  translated  by  Dryden  : — 


260  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

•^  Some  asked  for  envied  power,  which  public  hata 
Pursues  and  hurries  headlong  to  their  fate ; 
Down  go  the  titles,  and  the  statue  crowned 
Is  by  base  hands  in  the  next  river  drowned. 
The  guiltless  horses  and  the  chariot-wheel 
The  same  effects  of  vulgar  fury  feel : 
The  smith  prepares  his  hammer  for  the  stroke, 
While  the  lunged  bellows  hissing  fire  provoke ; 
Sejanus,  almost  first  of  Roman  names. 
The  great  Sejanus  crackles  in  the  flames ! 
Formed  in  the  forge  the  pliant  brass  is  laid 
'  On  anvils  :  and  of  head  and  limbs  are  made 

Pans,  cans,  and  gridirons,  a  whole  kitchen  trade. 

Adorn  your  doors  with  laurel ;  and  a  bull, 
Milk-white  and  large,  lead  to  the  Capitol; 
Sejanus,  with  a  rope,  is  dragged  along, 
The  sport  and  laughter  of  the  giddy  throng  ! 
«  Good  Lord,'  they  cry,  '  what  Ethiop  lips  he  bears ! 
See  what  a  hang-dog  face  the  scoundrel  wears ! 
By  Jove,  I  never  could  endure  his  sight ; — 
But,  say,  how  came  his  monstrous  crimes  to  light  ? 
What  is  the  charge,  and  who  the  evidence  ? 
The  savior  of  the  nation  and  the  prince  ?' — 
'  Nothing  of  this ;  but  our  old  Cresar  sent 
A  tedious  letter  to  his  parliament.' — 
'  Nay,  sirs,  if  Ca?sar  wi'ote,  I  ask  no  more ; 
He's  guilty,  and  the  question's  out  of  door.' 
How  goes  the  mob  !  for  that's  a  mighty  thing — 
When  the  king's  trump,  the  mob  are  for  the  king  • 
They  follow  fortune,  and  the  common  cry 
Is  still  against  the  rogue  condemned  to  die. 

But  the  same  very  mob,  that  rascal  crowd. 
Had  cried  Sejanus,  with  a  shout  as  loud^ 
Had  his  designs  by  fortun-s's  favor  blest. 
Succeeded,  and  the  prince's  age  opprest." 

The  cruelty  of  Tiberius  was  increased  tenfold  after  the  removal  of 
his  favorite  ;  the  least  circumstance  rendered  him  suspicious  ;  and  when 
once  a  noble  was  suspected,  his  fate  was  sealed.  In  all  his  extravagan- 
cies he  was  supported  by  the  servile  senate  ;  and  this  body,  once  so 
independent,  never  ventured  even  to  remonstrate  against  his  sanguinary 
decrees.  At  length,  continued  debauchery  undermined  the  emperor's 
constitution :  but  with  the  usual  weakness  of  licentious  sovereigns,  he 
endeavored  to  disguise  the  state  of  his  health,  not  merely  from  his 
court,  but  his  physicians.  At  length,  finding  death  approach  very 
rapidly,  he  bequeathed  the  empire  to  Caius  Calig'ula,  the  only  surviving 
son  of  his  nephew  and  victim  German'icus.  It  is  said  that  he  chose 
this  prince,  though  well  aware  of  his  natural  depravity,  that  his  own 
reign  might  be  regretted,  when  contrasted  with  the  still  more  sanguinary 
rule  of  his  successor.  Soon  after  having  signed  his  will,  Tiberius  was 
seized  with  a  fainting  fit,  and  the  courtiers,  believing  him  dead,  hastened 
to  offer  their  homage  to  Calig'ula ;  but  the  emperor  rallied,  and  there 
was  reason  to  fear  his  vengeance.  Mac'ro,  the  commander  of  the 
guards,  averted  the  danger  by  smothering  the  weak  old  man  with  a 
weight  of  coverings,  under  pretence  of  keeping  him  warm  (a.  d.  37). 
In  this  reign,  though  the  forms  of  the  constitution  were  retained,  its 
pirit  and  substance  wero  completely  altered  ;  the  government  became 


ROMAN  EMPIRE  261 

a  complete  despotism  ;  and  the  only  use  of  the  senate  was  to  register 
thti  edicts  of  the  sovereign.  While  Tiberius  was  emperor,  Jesus  Christ 
was  crucified  in  Judea,  under  the  propra^torship  of  Pontius  Pilate 
(a.  d.  33).  It  is  said,  but  on  very  doulitful  authority,  that  Tiberius, 
having  received  an  account  of  his  miracles,  wished  to  have  him  en- 
rolled among  the  gods,  but  that  his  designs  were  frustrated  by  the  op- 
position of  the  senate. 

Caius,  surnamed  Calig'ula  from  the  military  boots  (caligce)  which  he 
was    accustomed   to  wear,  was   received   on  his   accession  with  tl^e 
utmost  enthusiasm  by  both  the  senate  and  the  people,  on  account  of  the 
great  merits  of  his  father  German'icus.     He  began  his  reign  by  libera- 
ting all  the  state  prisoners,  and  dismissing  the  whole  horde  of  spies  and 
informers  whom  Tiberius  had  encouraged.     By  these  and  other  similar 
acts  of  generosity,  he  became  so  popular,  Jiat  when  he  was  attacked 
by  sickness,  the  whole  empire  was  filled  with  sorrow,  and  innumerable 
sacrifices  were  offered  in  every  temple  for  his  recovery.     This  sickness 
probably  disordered  his  brain,  for  in  his  altered  conduct  after  his  resto- 
ration to  health  there  appears  fully  as  much  insanity  as  wickedness. 
Young  Tiberius,  whom  he  had  adopted,  was  liis  first  victim ;  he  then 
ordered  all  the  prisoners   in  Rome  to  be  thrown  to  wild  beasts  without 
a  trial.     But  Calig'ula  was  not  satisfied  with  simple  murder  ;  it  was  his 
fiendish  pleasure  to  witness  the  sufferings  of  his  victims,  and  protract 
their  tortures,  in  order  that  they  might,  as    he    said,  feel   themselves 
dying.     Finding   no  one  dare  to  oppose  his  sanguinary  caprices,  he 
began  to  regard  himself  as  something  more  than  a  mere  mortal,  and  to 
claim  divine  honors  ;  and  finally,  he  erected  a  temple  to  himself,  and 
instituted  a  college  of  priests  to  superintend  his  own  worship.     A  less 
guilty  but  more  absurd  proceeding  was  the  reverence  he  claimed  for  his 
favorite  horse  Incitatus,  whom  he  frequently  invited  to  dine  at  the  im- 
perial table,  where   the  animal  fed  on  gilt  oats,  and  drank  the  most 
costly  wines   from  jewelled  goblets.     It  is  even  said  that  nothing  but 
his  death  prevented  him  from  raising  this  favorite  steed  to  the  consul- 
ship.    While  the  whole  city  was  scandalized  by  his  outrageous  licen- 
tiousness, men  were  suddenly  astounded  to  hear  that  the  emperor  had 
resolved  to  lead  an  army  against  the  Germans  in  person,  and  the  most 
extensive  preparations  were  made  for   his  expedition.     As  might  have 
been  expected,  the  campaign  was  a  mere  idle  parade  ;  and  Calig'ula, 
notwithstanding,  claimed  the  most  extravagant  honors  ;  and  finding  the 
senate    slower   in  adulation   than   he    expected,   seriously  contempla 
ted  the   massacre  of  the   entire  body.     At  length  the  Romans  became 
weary  of  a  monster  equally  wicked  and  ridiculous  ;  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  for  his  destruction ;  and  he  was  slain  in  one  of  the  passages  of 
the  Cir'cus  by  Chajrea,  the  captain  of  the  praetorian  guards  (a.  d.  40). 
His  body  lay  a  long  time  exposed,  but  was  finally  interred  like  that  of 
a  slave  :  his  wife  and  infant  child  were  murdered  by  the  conspirators, 
who  dreaded  future  vengeance. 

Claudius,  the  brother  of  German'icus  and  uncle  of  the  late  emperor, 
a  prince  of  weak  intellect,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  conspirators, 
whose  choice  was  sanctioned  by  the  senate.  The  unfortunate  idiot, 
thus  placed  at  the  head  of  the  empire,  was  during  his  entire  reign  the  pup- 
pet of  worthless  and  wicked  favorites,  among  whom  the  most  infamous 


262  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

were  tlie  empress  Messalina  and  Agrippina,  the  eunuch  Posu  es,  and 
the  freedmen  Pal'las  and  Narcis'sus.  His  reign  commenced  with  the 
punishmeiit  of  those  who  had  conspired  against  Calig'ula :  they  were 
slain,  not  for  the  crime  they  had  committed,  but  because  they  were  sus- 
pected of  a  design  to  restore  the  ancient  constitution.  Notwithstanding 
his  weakness,  Claudius  undertook  an  expedition  into  Britain,  where 
the  native  tribes  were  wasting  their  strength  in  mutual  wars,  and  he 
commenced  a  series  of  campaigns  which  eventually  led  to  the  complete 
subjugation  of  the  southern  part  of  the  island.  The  senate  granted  him 
a  magnificent  triumphal  procession  on  his  return  ;  and  Messalina,  whose 
infidelities  were  now  notorious,  accompanied  the  emperor  in  a  stately 
chariot  during  the  solemnity.  The  cruelty  of  the  empress  was  as  great 
as  her  infamy  :  at  her  instigation  Claudius  put  to  death  some  of  the 
most  eminent  nobles,  and  the  confiscation  of  their  fortunes  supplied  her 
with  money  to  lavish  on  her  paramours.  At  length  she  proceeded  to 
such  an  extravagant  length,  that  she  openly  married  Sil'ius,  one  of  her 
adulterers  ;  and  Narcis'sus,  whom  she  had  displeased,  gave  the  em- 
peror private  information  of  her  guilt,  and  she  was  slain  in  the  gardens 
which  had  been  the  chief  theatre  of  her  crimes. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Messalina,  Claudius  married  his  niece  Agrip- 
pina, the  widow  of  Domitius  Ahenobar'bus,  by  whom  she  had  one  son, 
originally  called  after  his  father,  but  better  known  in  history  by  the 
name  of  Nero.  The  new  empress  did  not,  like  her  predecessor,  render 
the  state  subservient  to  her  amours,  but  she  grasped  at  power  to  indulge 
her  insatiable  avarice,  boundless  ambition,  and  unparalleled  cruelty. 
She  ruled  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  appeared  with  him  in  the  senate, 
sat  on  the  same  throne  during  all  public  ceremonies,  gave  audience  to 
foreign  princes  and  ambassadors,  and  even  took  a  share  in  the  admin- 
istration of  justice.  She  at  length  prevailed  upon  Claudius  to  adopt  her 
child  Domitius  (Nero),  and  constitute  him  heir  of  the  sovereignty,  in 
preference  to  his  own  son  Britan'nicus.  But  Claudius  showing  some 
signs  of  an  intention  to  change  the  succession  again,  Agrippina  pro- 
cured him  to  be  poisoned  by  his  favorite  eunuch  and  the  state  physician 
(a.  d.  54).  Having  previously  gained  over  Bur'rhus,  the  captain  of  the 
praetorian  guards,  to  her  interest,  the  empress  concealed  her  husband's 
death  until  she  had  secured  the  army  in  favor  of  her  son,  rightly  judging 
that  the  senate  would  confirm  the  choice  of  the  soldiers. 

Nero  Claudius  Cae'sar  had  been  nurtured  in  the  midst  of  crimes,  and 
educated  for  the  stage  rather  than  the  state  ;  he  was  still  a  youth  of 
seventeen,  and  he  looked  on  the  empire  as  only  an  extensive  field  for 
the  indulgence  of  his  passions.  He  soon  became  weary  of  his  mother's 
imperious  rule  ;  and  Agrippina,  finding  herself  neglected,  threatened  to 
restore  the  crown  to  Britan'nicus.  This  was  the  signal  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  that  young  prince  :  poison  was  administered  to  him  by  one  of 
the  emperor's  emissaries,  and  a  few  hours  after  his  death,  his  body  was 
borne  to  the  pile  ;  for  so  little  care  had  the  emperor  of  concealing  his 
share  in  the  murder,  tha  the  preparations  for  the  prince's  funeral  were 
made  before  the  poison  was  administered.  An  infamous  woman,  Pop- 
pae'a  Sablna,  who  had  abandoned  her  husband  to  live  in  adultery  with 
the  emperor,  stimulated  Nero  to  still  greater  crimes.  Persuaded  that 
during  the  lifetime  of  Agrippina  she  could  not  hope  to  remove  Octavia 


ROMAN   EMPIRE.  263 

Nero's  wife,  and  become  herself  a  partner  in  the  empire,  she  urged  her 
paramour,  by  every  means  in  her  power,  to  the  murder  of  his  mother 
Nero  himself  was  anxious  to  remove  one  whom  he  so  greatly  feared ; 
but  he  dreaded  the  resentment  of  the  Romans,  who,  in  spite  of  ho? 
crimes,  reverenced  the  last  representative  of  the  family  of  Gcrinan'icua 
After  various  attempts  to  destroy  her  secretly  had  failed,  a  body  of 
armed  men  were  sent  to  her  house,  and  she  was  murdered  in  her  bed. 
A  labored  apology  for  this  matricide  was  soon  after  published,  which, 
it  is  painful  to  learn,  was  composed  by  the  philosopher  Sen'eca. 

The  death  of  Bur'rhus,  whether  by  poison  or  disease  is  uncertain,  led 
to  a  great  deterioration  of  Nero's  character .  for  the  influence  of  that 
able  statesman  had  restrained  the  emperor  from  many  extravagances 
in  which  he  was  anxious  to  indulge.  Tigellinus,  a  wretch  infamous 
for  all  the  crimes  that  are  engendered  by  cruelty  and  Inst,  became  the 
new  minister ;  and  Nero  no  longer  kept  within  the  bounds  of  ordinary 
decency.  Sen'eca  was  banished  from  the  court ;  the  empress  Octavia 
was  divorced,  and  afterward  murdered ;  finally,  Poppaj'a  was  publicly 
married  to  the  emperor.  A  tour  through  Italy  gave  Nero  an  opportunity 
of  appearing  as  a  singer  on  the  stage  at  Naples,  and  he  was  excessively 
gratified  by  the  applause  with  which  the  Neapolitans  and  some  Alex- 
andrians fed  his  vanity.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Rome,  a  dreadful  con- 
flagration, which  lasted  nine  days,  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the 
city ;  and  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  fire  had  been  kindled  by 
the  emperor's  orders.  Upon  the  ruins  of  the  demolished  city  Nero 
erected  his  celebrated  golden  palace,  which  seems  to  have  been  more 
remarkable  for  its  vast  extent,  and  the  richness  of  the  materials  used  in 
its  construction,  than  for  the  taste  or  beauty  of  the  architectural  design. 
To  silence  the  report  of  his  having  caused  the  late  calamity,  Nero 
transferred  the  guilt  of  the  fire  to  the  new  sect  of  the  Christians,  whose 
numbers  were  rapidly  increasing  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  A  cruel 
persecution  commenced  ;  first,  all  who  openly  acknowledged  their  con- 
nexion with  the  sect  were  arrested  and  tortured :  then  from  their  ex- 
torted confessions,  thousands  of  others  were  seized  and  condemned,  not 
for  the  burning  of  the  city,  but  on  the  still  more  ludicrous  charge  of 
hatred  and  enmity  to  mankind.  Their  death  and  torture  were  ag- 
gravated with  cruel  derision  and  sport ;  for  they  were  either  covered 
with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn  to  pieces  by  devouring  dogs,  or 
fastened  to  crosses,  or  wrapped  up  in  combustible  garments,  that  when 
the  daylight  failed,  they  might  serve,  like  torches,  to  illuminate  the  dark- 
ness of  the  night.  For  this  tragical  spectacle  Nero  lent  his  own  gar- 
dens, and  exhibited  at  the  same  time  the  public  diversions  of  the  circus  ; 
sometimes  driving  a  chariot  in  person,  and  sometimes  standing  among 
the  people  as  a  spectator,  in  the  habit  of  a  charioteer. 

The  extravagant  expenses  o.*  the  golden  palace,  the  restoration  of 
the  city,  the  emperor's  luxuries,  and  the  entertainments  given  to  the 
people,  exhausted  the  exchequer,  and  led  to  a  system  of  plunder  and 
extortion  which  nearly  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  empire.  Wot  only 
Italy,  but  all  the  provinces,  the  several  confederate  nations,  and  all  the 
cities  that  had  the  title  of  free,  were  pillaged  and  laid  waste.  The 
temples  of  the  gods  and  the  houses  of  individuals  were  equally  stripped 
of  their  treasures  ;  but  still  enough  could  not  be  obtained  to  support  the 


264  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

emperor's  boxmoiess  prodigality.  At  length  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
for  his  destruction  by  Cneius  Piso,  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  Ro- 
man nobility  engaged.  It  was  accidentally  discovered ;  and  Nero 
eagerly  seized  such  a  pretence  for  giving  loose  to  his  sanguinary  dispo- 
sitions. Among  the  victims  were  the  philosopher  Sen'eca,  the  poet 
Lucan,  Piso,  and  most  of  the  leading  nobles.  In  the  midst  of  the 
massacres,  Nero  appeared  on  the  stage  as  a  candidate  for  the  prize  of 
music  which  of  course  he  obtained.  About  the  same  time  he  killed 
the  empress  Poppse'a  by  kicking  her  while  pregnant. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  such  repeated  atrocities  should  not  have 
driven  the  Roman  people  to  revolt ;  but  the  lower  classes  felt  nothing 
of  the  imperial  despotism,  and  did  not  sympathize  with  the  calamities 
of  the  nobles,  because  the  ancient  oppressions  of  the,  aristocracy  were 
still  remembered.  They  were,  besides,  gratified  by  a  monthly  distribu- 
tion of  corn,  by  occasional  supplies  of  wine  and  meat  (congiaria  et 
eviscerationcs),  and  by  the  magnificent  shows  of  the  circus  (munera). 
In  fact,  the  periods  of  tyranny  were  the  golden  days  of  the  poor  ;  and 
Nero  was  far  more  popular  with  the  rabble  than  any  statesman  or  general 
of  the  republic  had  ever  been. 

Not  satisfied  with  his  Italian  fame,  Nero  resolved  to  display  his  mu- 
sical skill  at  the  Olympic  games,  and  for  this  purpose  passed  over  into 
Greece.  The  applauses  he  received  in  his  tour  from  the  spectators  so 
gratified  him,  that  he  declared  "  the  Greeks  alone  perfectly  understand 
music."  lie  transmitted  a  particular  account  of  his  victories  to  the  sen- 
ate, and  ordered  thanksgivings  and  sacrifices  to  be  off'ered  for  them  in 
every  temple  throughout  the  empire.  That  no  monuments  of  other  vic- 
tors might  remain,  he  commanded  all  their  statues  to  be  pulled  down, 
dragged  through  the  streets,  and  either  dashed  to  pieces,  or  thrown  into 
the  common  sewers.  While  he  was  thus  engaged,  the  dreadful  rebel- 
lion, which  destroyed  the  Jewish  nation,  commenced  in  Palestine  :  Ces'- 
tius  Gal'Ius,  the  governor  of  Syria,  having  been  defeated  in  an  attempt 
to  besiege  Jerusalem,  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  intrusted  to  the  cele- 
brated Vespasian.  Though  Nero  had  been  greatly  delighted  by  the  ex- 
cessive adulations  of  the  Achaeans,  he  did  not  abstain  from  plundering 
their  country ;  and  A'chaia  suffered  more  from  his  peaceful  visit  than 
from  the  open  war  of  Mum'mius  or  SyFla. 

Soon  after  the  emperor's  return  to  Rome,  formidable  insurrections 
burst  forth  in  the  western  provinces,  occasioned  by  the  excessive  taxa- 
tion to  which  they  were  subjected.  Julius  Vin'dex,  descended  from  the 
ancient  kings  of  Aquitain,  was  the  firvt  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt 
in  Celtic  Gaul,  of  which  he  was  governor.  Gal'ba  soon  after  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  in  Spain  by  his  soldiers,  and  was  supported  by  O'tho, 
the  governor  of  Lusitania.  Nero  was  not  much  disturbed  by  the  re- 
bellion of  Vin'dex ;  but  the  hostility  of  Gal'ba  filled  him  with  conster- 
nation. He  was,  however,  consoled  for  a  time  by  the  intelligence  of 
the  defeat  of  the  Gauls,  who  were  so  completely  overthrown  by  Vir- 
ginius,  the  imperial  lieutenant,  that  Vin'dex  slew  himself  in  despair 
Gal'ba  would  now  have  been  ruined,  had  not  Nymphid'ius,  whom  Nere 
had  appointed  the  colleague  of  Tigellfnus,  seduced  the  praetorian  guards 
to  renounce  their  allegiance.  The  emperor  was  immediately  abandoned 
by  all  his  ministers  and  servants  ;  he  fled  from  Rome,  and  sought  refuge 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  265 

in  the  house  of  Phaon,  one  of  his  freedmen.  Here  he  so  m  learned 
that  he  had  been  dechircd  an  enemy  to  the  state,  and  sentenced  to  be 
executed  according  to  ancient  custom  {more  majorum).  Inquiring  the 
nature  of  this  punishment  he  was  informed  that  he  was  to  be  placed 
in  a  pillory,  and  beaten  to  death  with  rods  (a.  d.  68).  At  the  prospect 
of  such  a  cruel  fate  he  was  filled  with  horror,  and  declared  that  he 
would  commit  suicide  ;  but  his  courage  failed  when  he  was  about  to  use 
the  dagger.  At  length,  hearing  the  galloping  of  the  horse  sent  to  ar- 
rest him,  he  requested  the  aid  of  his  freedman  Epaphroditus,  and  re- 
ceived a  mortal  wound.  He  was  not  quite  dead  when  the  centurion, 
sent  by  the  senate,  arrived,  and  endeavored  to  stop  the  blood.  Nero, 
looking  at  him  sternly,  said,  "  It  is  too  late.  I«  this  your  fidelity  ?"  and 
soon  after  expired.  His  body  was  interred  privately,  but  honorably  ; 
and  many  of  the  lower  ranks,  whose  favor  he  aad  w(;n  by  his  extrava- 
gant lilieralities,  lamented  his  loss,  honored  his  memory,  and  brought 
flowers  to  decorate  his  tomb. 

During  this  reign  the  provinces  were  harassed  by  frequent  revolts  : 
in  addition  to  those  we  have  already  noticed,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
mention  the  revolt  of  the  Iceni  in  Britain,  under  the  command  of  their 
heroic  queen  Boadicea.  She  took  up  arms  to  revenge  the  gross  insuUs 
and  injuries  she  had  received  ;  falling  unexpectedly  on  the  Roman  col- 
onies and  garrisons,  she  destroyed  a  great  number  both  of  them  and 
their  allies  ;  and  could  she  have  secured  the  co-operation  of  all  the  na- 
tive tribes,  might  have  liberated  her  country.  This  dangerous  insur- 
rection was  quelled  by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  who  added  the  island  of 
Anglesey  to  the  Roman  dominions  ;  thus  taking  from  the  Druids,  the 
secret  instigators  of  resistance  to  all  foreign  power,  the  great  centre 
both  of  their  religion  and  their  influence. 

The  family  of  the  Cajsars,  properly  speaking,  ended  with  Calig'ula ; 
but  as  both  Nero  and  Claudius  were  maternally  descended  from  Augus'- 
tus,  they  are  usually  reckoned  among  the  members  of  the  Julian,  or  first 
imperial  house.  Its  extinction,  notwithstanding  the  vices  of  its  later 
members,  was  a  serious  calamity  to  the  empire ;  it  led  to  a  series  of 
sanguinary  wars,  arising  from  disputed  successions,  during  which  the 
supreme  authority  o^  the  state  was  wrested  equally  from  the  emperors 
and  senate  by  a  liceniious  soldiery. 

Section  II. — Ftom  the  Extinction  of  the  Julian  to  that  of  the  first  Flavian 

Family. 

FROM    A.  D.  68    TO    A.  D.  96. 

Ser'vius  Sul'pitius  Gal'ba,  universally  acknowledged  seventh  em- 
peror after  the  death  of  Nero,  was  descended  from  an  illustrious  family 
that  had  been  eminently  distinguished  for  warlike  achievements  during 
the  laf.er  ages  of  the  republic.  He  was  now  in  the  seventy-third  year 
of  his  age,  and,  on  account  of  his  infirmities,  travelled  very  slowly 
toward  Rome.  Nymphid'ius  took  advantage  of  this  delay,  to  make  a 
struggle  for  empire  by  bribing  the  praetorian  guards  ;  but  his  conduct  du 
ring  the  reign  of  Nero  had  rendered  him  so  deservedly  unpopular,  thai 
he  was  murdered  by  the  very  soldiers  who  had  taken  his  money, 
This  rash  conspiracy  induced  Gal'ba  to  sully  the  commencement  of  hia 


^66  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

reign  by  unseasonable  severities,  which  gave  the  more  offence  to  his 
subjects,  as  they  had  not  been  anticipated.  It  was  soon  discovered  that 
the  new  emperor,  however  virtuous  himself,  was  the  tool  of  unworthy 
favorites,  who,  under  the  sanction  of  his  name,  plundered  the  people, 
and  deprived  the  soldiers  of  their  usual  donative.  A  revolt  of  the  le- 
gions in  Upper  Germany  induced  Gal'ba  to  nominate  a  successor ;  he 
chose  Cnefus  Piso,  descended  from  the  old  triumvirs  Cras'sus  and  Pom'- 
pey,  who  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  talents,  virtues,  and  engaging 
manners.  But  this  appointment  gave  great  offence  to  O'tho,  who  had 
been  foremost  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Gal'ba  :  taking  advantage  of  the 
discontent  of  the  praetorian  guards,  he  went  to  their  camp,  and  easily 
induced  these  turbulent  warriors  to  proclaim  him  emperor.  Gal'ba  pre- 
pared to  make  a  vigorous  struggle  for  his  crown,  but  his  soldiers  refused 
to  obev  the  orders  of  their  commander ;  and  when  he  was  borne  in  a 
litter  to  enforce  obedience,  those  who  carried  him,  terrified  by  the  tu- 
mult, threw  down  the  chair,  and  the  aged  emperor,  thus  lying  helpless, 
was  slain  by  one  of  the  veterans  (a.  d.  69).  His  body  was  treated 
with  the  greatest  indignity  by  the  factious  troops  ;  Piso,  his  appointed 
successor,  was  murdered;  and  the  praetorian  guards  threatened  destruc- 
tion to  all  who  did  not  acquiesce  in  their  decision. 
.  O'tho,  thus  raised  to  the  empire,  was,  during  his  brief  reign,  a  pas- 
sive instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  licentious  soldiers.  Scarcely  had 
he  been  fixed  upon  the  throne,  when  he  found  that  he  would  have  to 
struggle  for  empire  with  a  formidable  rival,  Vitel'lius,  the  commander 
of  the  legions  in  lower  Germany.  Valens  and  Caecina  joined  the 
usurper  with  numerous  forces,  and  intelligence  soon  arrived  of  their 
advance  toward  Italy  through  Gaul.  Their  arrival  in  Italy  filled  Rome 
with  consternation,  which  the  licentious  indolence  in  which  O'tho  in- 
dulged by  no  means  tempted  to  abate.  But  on  the  near  approach  of 
danger,  the  emperor  laid  aside  his  pleasures  and  debaucheries,  making 
the  most  vigorous  measures  for  resistance.  Most  of  the  provinces  de- 
clared in  his  favor,  and  could  he  have  protracted  the  war,  he  would 
probably  have  preserved  his  crown.  But  the  praetorian  guards,  wearied 
of  the  unusual  hardships  of  a  campaign,  and  eager  to  return  to  the 
pleasures  of  the  capital,  demanded  to  be  led  instantly  against  the  en- 
emy. O'tho  withdrew  to  a  place  of  safety,  but  ordered  his  generals  to 
give  battle  without  delay.  The  decisive  engagement  was  fought  at 
Bedriacum,  near  the  banks  of  the  Po :  early  in  the  day,  the  praetorian 
guards,  attacked  in  flank  by  a  Batavian  column,  fled  in  disorder,  and 
threw  the  rest  of  the  army  into  confusion.  This  unexpected  disaster 
gave  Vitel'lius  an  easy  victory ;  and  following  up  his  success,  he  took 
possession  of  the  imperial  camp.  O'tho,  having  learned  the  news  of 
the  battle,  convened  the  rest  of  his  soldiers,  thanked  them  for  their  fi- 
delity, and  intimated  his  resolution  not  to  permit  his  life  to  be  the  cause 
of  further  bloodshed.  That  night  he  committed  suicide,  having  only 
reigned  three  months.  He  .vas  honorably  interred  by  his  soldiers,  who 
showed  sincere  sorrow  for  his  loss. 

Vitel'lius  was  a  slave  to  gluttony  and  debauchery :  he  received  very 
coldly  the  congratula'ions  of  the  senate  on  his  victory  and  accession, 
and  he  was  reluctant  to  expose  himself  to  the  dangers  of  the  turbu- 
lences that  the  soldiers  both  of  his  and  O^tho's  aimy,  excited  in  Italy 


HOMAN  EMPIRE.  267 

At  length  he  made  his  public  entrance  into  Rome,  and  ende:  vored  to 
win  the  favor  of  the  populace  by  large  donatives  and  expensire  enter- 
•ainments  in  the  circus.  Intrusting  all  the  power  of  the  state  to  unworthy 
.avorites,  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  on 
which  he  squandered  nearly  seven  millions  of  money  in  less  than  four 
months.  Nothing,  however,  gave  greater  scandal  to  the  higher  ranks 
of  the  senators,  than  his  solemnizing,  with  great  pomp,  the  obsequies 
of  Nero,  and  compelUng  the  Augustal  priests,  an  order  consecrated  by 
Tiberius  for  superintending  the  religious  rites  of  the  Julian  family,  to 
attend  at  that  ceremony.  While  he  was  thus  insulting  his  subjects,  and 
wasting  the  wealth  of  the  empire,  fortune,  or  rather  Providence,  was 
raising  him  up  a  competitor  in  a  distant  province.  Vespasian  was  car- 
rying on  the  war  against  the  Jews  with  great  success,  when  he  heard 
of  the  death  of  Nero,  and  the  election  of  Gal'ba  :  he  sent  his  son  Ti- 
tus to  present  his  allegiance  to  the  new  emperor  :  but  ere  he  could 
reach  Italy,  Gal'ba  was  no  more,  and  O'tho  and  Vitel'lius  were  con- 
tending for  the  empire.  Tatus  returned  to  his  father,  whom  he  found 
ready  to  swear  allegiance  to  Vitel'lius,  though  the  army  wished  him  to 
declare  himself  emperor.  Vespasian's  reluctance,  whether  real  or  af- 
fected, was  overcome  by  the  exhortations  of  Mucianus,  governor  of 
Syria,  and  the  tributary  monarchs  of  the  east,  whose  friendship  he  had 
won  by  his  justice  and  moderation.  No  sooner  did  he  commence  his 
march  toward  Europe,  than  the  legions  quartered  in  Illyr'icum  and 
Pannonia  declared  in  his  favor ;  nor  was  there  any  province  on  which 
Vitel'lius  could  rely  for  support  except  Africa.  Primus  and  Varus,  at 
the  head  of  the  lUyrian  arnties,  crossed  the  Alps,  and  made  themselves 
masters  of  Verona,  and  at  the  same  time  the  fleet  at  Ravenna  declared 
in  favor  of  Vespasian.  Csecina,  who  had  the  principal  share  in  raising 
Vitel'lius  to  the  throne,  followed  the  same  course,  but  his  soldiers  dis- 
approved his  conduct,  and  put  him  in  irons.  Primus,  advancing  south- 
ward, encountered  the  forces  of  Vitel'lius  near  Cremona,  and  totally 
routed  them,  after  a  battle  which  lasted  the  entire  day  and  a  great  part 
of  the  following  night.  The  city  of  Cremona,  after  a  desperate  resist- 
ance, was  taken  by  storm,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  put  to 
the  sword  Valens,  who  went  to  raise  an  army  in  the  western  provin- 
ces to  su|>por*.  the  emperor,  was  taken  prisoner,  upon  which  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  Britain,  declared  in  favor  of  Vespasian. 

Vitel'lius  at  first  refused  to  believe  the  evil  tidings  that  reached  him 
om  every  quarter ;  but  at  length  on  the  near  approach  of  danger,  he 
hasted  to  secure  the  passes  of  the  Apennines.  Primus,  however,  by  a 
hazardous  march  through  the  snow,  forced  his  way  over  the  mountains, 
and  sent  the  head  of  Valens  to  be  displayed  to  the  imperial  army,  as  a 
proof  of  his  success  in  other  quarters.  Immediately  Vitel'lius  waa 
abandoned  by  his  troops  :  he  fled  hastily  to  Rome,  and  receiving  no  en- 
couragement from  senate  or  people,  abdicated  his  authority.  Some  of 
the  praetorian  guards,  however,  dreading  the  strict  discipline  of  Vespa- 
sian, compelled  the  wretched  monarch  to  resume  the  purple.  The  city 
was  distracted  by  a  horrid  civil  tumult,  in  which  many  of  the  principal 
nobles  perished,  and  the  Capitol  v»  as  burned  to  the  ground.  Primus, 
hearing  of  these  disorders,  advanced  with  all  speed  to  Rome,  forced  an 
entrance  int^o  the  city,  and  took  the  camp  of  the  praetorian  guerds  by 


268  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Storm.  Vitel'lius  hid  himself  in  the  palace,  but  was  discovered  in  his 
retreat  by  the  licentious  populace,  ready  to  rise  under  any  pretext 
through  hopea  of  plunder,  dragged  ignominiously  through  the  streets  to 
the  place  of  common  execution,  and  put  to  death  with  a  thousand 
wounds  (a.  d.  69).  His  brother,  Lucius  Vitel'lius,  who  was  advancing 
to  his  aid  with  an  army  from  the  south  of  Italy,  surrendered  at  discre- 
tion, and  was  put  to  death.  The  factions  that  had  been  formed  during 
this  disgraceful  reign  of  eight  months,  took  advantage  of  the  confusion 
to  wreak  mutual  vengeance.  Primus,  and  Vespasian's  second  son,  Do- 
mit'ian,  abandoned  themselves  to  debauchery  and  plunder  :  Rome  ap- 
peared on  the  very  brink  of  ruin  from  the  madness  of  its  own  citizens. 

At  length  tranquillity  was  restored  by  the  arrival  of  Vespasian,  whose 
accession  diffused  universal  joy.  His  first  care  was  to  restore  t-he  dis- 
cipline of  the  army,  which  he  found  in  a  shocking  state  of  demoraliza- 
tion :  he  next  revived  the  authority  of  the  senate,  supplying  its  dimin- 
ished ranks  with  eminent  men  from  the  provinces  and  colonies  ;  finally, 
he  reformed  the  courts  of  law,  which  had  long  ceased  to  be  courts  of 
justice.  The  virtues  of  Vespasian,  supported  by  a  firm  temper,  led  to 
a  great  improvement  in  the  social  condition  of  Rome.  His  only  fault 
was  an  extravagant  love  of  money,  which,  however,  was  probably  ex- 
aggerated by  those  who  compared  his  parsimonious  expenditure  with 
the  lavish  extravagance  of  former  emperors. 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  signalized  by  the  final  termination 
of  the  Jewish  war,  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  its  holy  tem- 
ple. It  would  be  impossible  to  give  even  a  faint  outline  of  this  mem- 
orable war  here ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  Jews,  deceived  by  false 
prophets,  who  promised  them  a  temporal  deliverer,  persevered  in  their 
rebellion  long  after  every  reasonable  chance  of  success  had  disappeared  ; 
that  they  were  divided  into  hostile  factions,  who  fought  against  each 
othe'  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  while  the  walls  of  the  city  quivered 
under  the  battering  engines  of  the  common  enemy  ;  and  that  they  re- 
fused proflered  mercy  when  the  Roman  ensigns  were  waving  above 
their  battlements.  Dreadful  was  the  punishment  of  this  fated  nation : 
their  city  and  temple  were  reduced  to  heaps  of  shapeless  ruins ;  their 
best  and  bravest  fell  by  the  swords  of  the  Romans  or  each  other;  most 
of  the  wretched  survivors  were  sold  into  slavery,  and  the  Jews,  since 
ihat  period,  dispersed  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  have  become  a  mock- 
ery, a  by-word,  and  a  reproach  among  nations.  Tftus  and  his  father 
triumphed  together  on  account  of  this  success,  and  the  rich  ornaments 
of  the  temple  were  displayed  in  the  procession.  A  triumphal  arch  was 
also  erected  for  Titus,  on  which  his  noble  deeds  were  sculptured  :  it 
continues  nearly  perfect  to  the  present  day,  a  lasting  monument  of  his 
victories  over  the  Jewish  nation.  The  Batavian  war,  which  threatened 
great  dangers  to  the  Roman  dominions  in  Gaul  and  Germany,  was  con- 
cluded about  the  same  time  by  the  prudence  and  valor  of  Ceiealis  ;  and 
Comagene,  which  had  been  permitted  to  retain  its  own  sovereigns,  was 
reduced  to  a  province. 

Britain  had  yet  been  very  imperfectly  subdued,  and  the  completion 
of  its  conquest  was  intrusted  to  Cneius  Julius  Agric^ola,  a  native  of 
Gaul,  justly  celebrated  for  his  great  merits  as  a  general  and  a  states- 
man.     His  first  enterprise  was  to  recover  the  island  of  y)nglesey  from 


EOMAN  EMPIRE.  269 

the  Ordovices.  His  success  was  owing  to  his  promptitude  as  much  as 
to  his  valor  •  hu  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  hostile  country  before  the 
enemy  knew  of  his  having  passed  the  frontiers ;  and  the  I3ritons,  dis- 
concerted by  a  sudden  attack,  agreed  to  purchase  safety  by  submission. 
The  advantages  thus  won  by  miliUry  prowess,  he  resolved  to  confirm 
and  secure  by  enlightened  policy.  He  induced  the  Britons  to  lay  aside 
their  own  barbarous  customs,  and  adopt  the  Roman  manners ;  but  un- 
fortunately, in  giving  them  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  of  civilization,  he 
also  inspired  them  with  a  taste  for  luxury.  He  next  proceeded  to  attack 
the  Caledonians  ;  a  fleet  was  ordered  to  examine  the  coast ;  and  by  this 
expedition  Britain  was  first  discovered  to  be  an  island.  The  Caledo- 
nians drew  together  under  the  command  of  Gal'gacus,  and  hazarded  a 
pitched  battle  with  the  army  of  Agric'ola,  in  which  they  were  utterly 
routed,  and  pursued  with  great  slaughter ;  but  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Scottish  highlands  were  too  formidable  to  be  overcome  ;  and  th^  north- 
ern part  of  Britain  was  never  subdued  by  the  Romans. 

Several  conspiracies  were  formed  against  Vespasian,  whose  rigid 
rule  was  found  a  severe  check  on  the  licentiousness  of  the  nobles ;  but 
they  were  all  detected  and  punished.  At  length,  his  close  attention  to 
the  affairs  of  state  brought  on  a  mortal  disease.  He  retired  to  his 
country-seat  for  change  of  air ;  but  the  sickness  was  aggravated  by  the 
alteration,  and  he  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age  (a.  d.  78).  He 
was  the  second  of  the  Roman  emperors  that  died  a  natural  death,  though 
some  suspicion  is  attached  to  the  fate  of  Augus'tus,  and  he  was  the  first 
who  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  His  obsequies  were  performed  with  ex- 
traordinary pomp  by  Titus  ;  but  the  solemnity  was  disturbed  by  a  ludi- 
crous circumstance,  too  characteristic  of  the  age  to  be  omitted.  The 
Romans  were  so  preposterously  fond  of  mimics  and  farces,  that  they 
were  even  exhibited  at  funerals,  where  actors  personated  the  deceased, 
imitated  his  actions,  mimicked  his  voice,  and  satirized  his  peculiarities. 
At  Vespasian's  obsequies,  a  pantomime  named  Favor  personated  that 
emperor,  and  took  an  opportunity  of  attacking  his  parsimony.  Imita- 
ting the  voice  of  the  deceased  emperor,  he  loudly  demanded  the  price 
of  the  ceremony ;  a  large  sum  was  named  in  reply.  "  Give  me  the 
money,"  he  continued,  holding  out  his  hand,  "  and  throw  my  body  into 
the  Tiber." 

Vespasian  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Titus,  whose  first  action  after 
his  accession  was  a  sacrifice  of  his  dearest  affections  to  the  popular 
will.  He  dismissed  the  beautiful  Berenice,  daughter  to  Agrip'pa,  the 
last  king  of  Judea,  because  that  his  connexion  with  a  foreigner  was 
displeasing  to  the  senate  and  people.  Nor  was  this  the  only  instance 
of  his  complaisance  ;  he  allowed  the  spectators  to  choose  their  own 
entertainments  in  the  circus  and  he  never  refused  audience  to  a  peti- 
tioner. His  clemency  was  equally  remarkable  ;  he  abolished  the  law 
of  treason ;  and  severely  punished  spies  and  informers. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  Campania  was  alarmed  and  devastated 
by  the  most  dreadful  eruption  of  Vesuvius  on  record ;  it  laid  waste  the 
country  for  many  miles  round,  overwhelming  several  cities  with  their 
inhabitants,  among  which  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were  the  most 
remarkable.  This  was  followed  by  a  dreadful  conflagration  at  Rome, 
which  lasted  three  days,  and  destroyed  a  vas"  number  of  edifices,  bolh 


270  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

public  and  private.  The  exertions  of  Titus  to  remedy  both  these 
calamities  procured  him,  from  his  grateful  subjects,  the  honorable  title 
of  "  benefactor  of  the  human  race."  A  plague  afforded  him  fresh  op- 
portunities of  displaying  his  native  goodness  of  heart ;  but  these  exer- 
tions proved  too  much  for  his  constitution  ;  he  was  seized  with  a  fever, 
which  terminated  fatally  in  a  few  days  (a.  d.  81).  His  death  diffused 
universal  sorrow  throughout  the  empire  ;  every  family  lamented  as  if  it 
had  been  deprived  of  its  natural  protector  ;  and  his  name  has  become  a 
proverbial  designation  for  wise  and  virtuous  princes. 

Flavins  Domit'ian  succeeded  his  brother  without  any  opposition, 
though  his  character  for  debauchery  and  cruelty  was  sufficiently  noto- 
rious. He  was  naturally  timorous,  and  fear,  of  course,  aggravated  his 
sanguinary  disposition ;  yet  he  professed  a  passionate  attachment  to 
military  sports,  and  possessed  so  much  skill  in  archery,  that  he  could 
shoot  arrows  through  the  expanded  fingers  of  a  domesnc  placed  at  a 
considerable  distance  without  ever  inflicting  a  wound.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign,  he  studied  to  gain  the  favor  of  the  people  by  a  line 
of  conduct  worthy  of  an  upright  sovereign — disguising  his  vices,  and 
affecting  the  opposite  virtues.  He  presented  large  sums  to  his  minis- 
ters and  officers  of  state,  that  they  might  be  raised  above  the  temptation 
of  receiving  bribes ;  he  refused  the  inheritances  bequeathed  to  him, 
distributing  the  legacies  among  the  nearest  relations  of  the  deceased ; 
and  he  pretended  to  have  such  a  horror  of  shedding  blood,  that  he  is- 
sued an  edict  forbidding  the  sacrifice  of  oxen  or  any  other  living  ani- 
mals. He  confirmed  all  the  grants  made  by  the  preceding  emperors, 
increased  the  pay  of  the  soldiers,  and  finished,  at  an  immense  charge, 
all  the  public  buildings  which  had  been  begun  by  Titus. 

In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  he  attacked  the  Cat'ti,  the  most  war- 
like of  the  German  tribes  ;  and,  as  the  invasion  was  unexpected,  made 
several  of  the  peasants  prisoners.  Hearing,  however,  that  the  enemies 
were  preparing  an  army,  he  retreated  with  great  speed  ;  yet  the  servile 
senate  voted  him  a  triumph  for  this  pretended  success.  But  flattery 
could  not  hide  from  the  emperor  his  vast  inferiority  to  Agric'ola,  whose 
conquests  in  Britain  were  the  theme  of  universal  praise  :  he  recalled 
this  victorious  general,  who  deemed  it  prudent  to  decline  a  triumph, 
and  retire  into  the  seclusion  of  private  life.  From  this  time  forward 
the  emperor  indulged  in  the  most  sanguinary  excesses,  putting  to 
death,  without  the  form  of  trial,  the  most  eminent  senators  and  knights. 
The  herd  of  informers,  discouraged  and  punished  during  the  preceding 
reign,  once  more  came  into  favor ;  and  such  was  their  activity,  that  the 
most  innocent  conversation  was  frequently  made  the  ground  of  a  capi- 
tal charge.  The  infamous  vices  of  the  palace  were  so  far  from  being 
hidden,  that  they  were  ostentatiously  displayed  to  the  public  ;  and  when 
Domit'ian  had  thus  degraded  himself  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects  to  the 
condition  of  a  beast,  he  required  to  be  worshipped  as  a  god,  and  all  the 
streets  leading  to  the  Capitol  were  daily  crowded  with  victims  to  be 
oflered  in  sacrifices  before  his  altars  and  statues. 

The  Daci  and  Getse,  under  their  gallant  king  Deceb'alus,  invaded 
ihe  Roman  frontiers,  and  defeated  the  generals  sent  to  oppose  them  in 
two  great  battles.  Domit'ian,  encoiiraged  by  the  news  of  a  subsequent 
victory,  resolved  to  take  the  field  in  person :  but  instead  of  marching 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  271 

against  the  Daci,  he  attacked  the  Qu;i(li  and  Marcomanni,  and  was 
shauiefully  beaten.  Discouraged  by  this  overthrow,  he  concluded  a 
dishonorable  peace  with  the  Dacians,  engaging  to  pay  Deceb'alus  a 
yearly  tribute  :  but  he  wrote  to  the  senate,  boasting  of  extraordinar)' 
victories  ;  and  that  degraded  body,  though  well  aware  of  the  truth,  im- 
mediately decreed  him  the  honors  of  a  triumph. 

Wearied  by  the  tyranny  of  Domit'ian,  Lucius  Antonius,  the  governor 
of  upper  Germany,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  his  province,  but 
was  easily  defeated  and  slain.  This  abortive  insurrection  stimulated 
the  cruelty  of  the  emperor :  vast  numbers  were  tortured  and  executed, 
under  pretence  of  having  been  accomplices  of  Antonius.  An  edict 
was  published,  banishing  all  philosophers  from  Rome,  and  prohibiting 
mstruction  in  the  liberal  sciences ;  for  Domit'ian  felt  that  all  learning 
was  a  satire  on  his  own  ignorance,  and  all  virtue  a  reproof  of  his  infa- 
my. But  though  thus  tyrannical,  Domit'ian  had  little  fear  of  rebellion ; 
he  had  secured  the  support  of  the  troops  by  increasing  their  pay,  and 
his  splendid  entertainments  rendered  him  a  favorite  with  the  degraded 
populace.  The  adherents  to  the  national  religion  Avere  also  gratified 
by  a  second  general  persecution  of  the  Christians,  who  were  odious  to 
the  emperor  because  they  refused  to  worship  his  statues  (a.  d.  95). 
Among  the  most  illustrious  martyrs  in  the  cause  of  truth  on  this  occa- 
sion was  Flavins  Clem'ens,  cousin-german  of  the  emperor,  whose 
example  proves  that  the  new  religion  was  now  beginning  to  spread 
among  the  higher  ranks  of  society. 

It  was  the  custom  of  Domit'ian  to  inscribe  on  a  roll  the  names  of  the 
persons  he  designed  to  slaughter.  One  day  a  young  child  with  whom 
he  used  to  divert  himself  took  this  paper  from  under  the  pillow  on 
which  the  emperor  was  sleeping,  and  unaware  of  its  important  con- 
tents, gave  it  to  the  empress  Domit'ia.  She  saw  Avith  surprise  and 
consternation  her  own  name  on  the  fatal  list,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
imperial  chamberlain  and  the  captain  of  the  praetorian  guards,  to  whom 
she  immediately  communicated  their  danger.  They  at  once  conspired 
for  his  destruction,  and  he  was  murdered  in  his  bed  (a.  d.  96)..  The 
Roman  populace  heard  his  fate  with  indifference ;  but  the  soldiers, 
whose  pay  he  had  increased,  and  with  whom  he  had  often  shared  his 
plunder,  lamented  him  more  than  they  had  Vespasian  Titus  ;  it  is  even 
said  that  they  would  have  avenged  his  fate  by  a  general  massacre,  had 
they  not  been  restrained  by  their  officers. 

During  this  reign  flourished  a  philosopher,  Apollonius  Tyaneus, 
whose  austere  life  and  extensive  knowledge  procured  him  so  much 
fame,  that  he  pretended  to  have  the  power  of  working  miracles,  and 
aspired  to  become  the  founder  of  a  new  religion.  Like  Pythag'oras,  he 
travelled  into  the  remote  east,  and  incorporated  in  his  system  many  of 
the  tenets  that  are  now  held  by  the  Buddhists.  During  his  life,  this 
impostor  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  the  eflbrta 
of  his  disciples,  his  system,  after  his  death,  sank  rapidly,  i  ato  merited 
oblivion. 


272  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Section  Ul.—Froin  the  Extinction  of  the  first  Flavian  Family  to  the  last  oj 

the  Antonines. 

FROM  A.  D.  96  TO  A.  D.   193. 

Domit'ian  was  the  last  of  the  emperors  commonly  called  the  twelve 
Caesars  :  he  was  succeeded  by  Mar'cus   Cocceius  Ner'va,  who  was 
chosen  to  the  sovereignty  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  the  senate.     He  was 
a  native  of  Narn'ia  in  Umbria,  but  his  family  came  originally  from  Crete ; 
and  we  may  therefore  regard  him  as  the  first  foreigner  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  empire.     Though  past  the  age  of  seventy,  he  applied  him- 
self to  the  reformation  of  abuses  with  all  the  zeal  of  youth,  punishing 
informers,  redressing  grievances,  and  establishing  a  milder  and  more 
equitable  system  of  taxation.     His  greatest  fauU  was  excessive  lenity, 
which  encouraged  the  profligate  courtiers  to  persevere  in  their  accus- 
tomed peculations.     The  turbulent  preetorian  guards  raised  an  insurrec- 
tion, under  pretence  of  avenging  the  death  of  Domit'ian,  and  not  only 
compelled  the  emperor  to  abandon  such  victims  to  their  fury  as  they 
demanded,  but  actually  forced  him  to  return  them  public  thanks  for  their 
proper  and  patriotic  conduct.     This  outrageous  indignity,  however,  pro- 
duced a  highly  beneficial  result.     Ner'va,  finding  himself  despised  on 
account  of  hib  old  age  and  infirmities,  resolved  to  adopt  Mar'cus  Ul'pius 
Trajan,  the  greatest  and  most  deserving  person  of  his  age,  as  his  col- 
league and  successor,  though  he  had  many  relations  of  his  own,  who 
might,  without  incurring  the  imputation  of  presumption,  aspire  to  that 
dignity.     The  news  of  this  appointment  was  received  with  great  joy  by 
the  senate  and  people,  and  the  soldiers  immediately  returned  to  their 
duty.     Soon  after,  Ner'va,  while  chiding  severely  an  infamous  informer, 
so  heated  himself,  that  he  was  seized  with  a  fever,  which  proved  mor- 
tal, in  the  sixteenth  month  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  98).     He  was  ranked 
among  the  gods  by  his   subjects  ;  and  Trajan,  out  of  gratitude,  caused 
several  temples  to  be  erected  to  his  memory,  both  at  Rome  and  in  the 
provinces. 

Trajan  was  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  descended  from  a  family  that  had 

some  claim  to  royal  honors.     He  was  equally  great  as  a  ruler,  a  general, 

and  a  man ;  free  from  every  vice,  except  an  occasional  indulgence  in 

wine.     After  completely  abolishing  the  trials  for  high  treason  {judicia 

majeslatis),  he  restored  as  much  of  the  old  constitution  as  was  con 

sistent  with  a  monarchy ;  binding  himself  by  oath  to  observe  the  laws, 

reviving  the  comitia  for  the  election  of  civic  officers,  restoring  freedom 

of  speech  to  the  senate,  and  their  former  authority  to  the  magistrates. 

Deceb'alus  having  sent  to  claim  the  tribute  granted  to  him  by  Domit'ian, 

Trajan  peremptorily  refused  to  be  bound  by  such  a  disgraceful  treaty, 

and  hastily  levying  an  army,  marched  against  the  Dacians,  who  had 

already  crossed  the  Danube.     A  dreadful  battle  was  fought,  in  which 

the  Romans  gained  a  complete  victory ;  but  so  great  was  the  carnage 

on  both  sides,  that  linen  could  not  be  found  to  dress  the  wounds  of  the 

soldiers,  and  Trajan  tore  up  his  imperial  robes  to  supply  that  want. 

Pursuing  his  advantages,  the  emperor  soon  reduced  Deceb'alus  to  such 

distress,  that  he  was  forced  to  purchase   peace  by  giving  up  all  his 

engines  of  war,  and  acknowledging  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Romans. 

After  sometime    however,  the  Dacian  monarch,  unused  to  servitude 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  273 

again  had  recourse  to  arms,  and  was  proclaimed  a  public  enemy  by  the 
senate.  Trajan  once  more  took  the  field  in  person.  To  facilitate  the 
advance  of  his  army,  he  constructed  a  stupendous  stone  bridge  over  the 
Danube,  fortified  with  stong  castles  at  both  ends  ;  and  having  thus 
secared  his  conununications,  he  marched  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
country,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  capital  (a.  d.  106).  Deceb'alus, 
despairing  of  success,  committed  suicide  ;  and  after  his  death,  the  coun- 
try was  easily  formed  into  a  province,  and  several  Roman  colonies  and 
garrisons  for  the  first  time  planted  north  of  the  Danube.  In  the  same 
year  Arabia  Petraja  was  subdued,  and  annexed  to  the  empire  by  the 
governor  of  Syria. 

These  successes  rendered  Trajan  ambitious  of  further  ,;onques)t,  and 
he  resolved  to  contend  with  the  Parthians  lor  the  sovereignty  of  can 
cral  Asia.  He  commenced  by  subduing  Armenia,  which  he  made  h. 
new  province,  and  thence  he  advanced  into  Mesopotamia.  A  bridge 
not  less  remarkable  than  that  over  the  Danube  was  constructed  across 
the  Tigris  ;  and  the  Romans  passing  this  river  to  a  country  where  their 
eagles  had  never  before  been  seen,  conquered  the  greater  part  of  ancient 
Assyria.  Seleucia  and  Ctes'iphon  [El  Modain),  the  capital  of  the 
Parthian  kingdom,  were  besieged  and  taken  ;  after  which,  the  emperor, 
descending  the  Tigris,  displayed  the  Roman  standards  for  the  first  time 
in  the  Persian  gulf.  Thence  he  sailed  to  the  southern  part  of  the 
Arabian  peninsula  [Arabia  Felix),  a  great  part  of  which  he  annexed  to 
the  empire.  He  is  said  to  have  meditated  the  invasion  of  India ;  but 
was  probably  deterred  by  considering  the  great  difficulties  with  which 
he  would  have  to  contend  in  the  deserts  of  eastern  Persia. 

No  permanent  advantages  resulted  from  these  conquests.  No  sooner 
had  the  emperor  returned,  than  most  of  the  nations  which  he  had  con- 
quered revolted,  and  massacred  the  Roman  garrisons.  The  Jews, 
prompted  by  false  prophets,  raised  a  dangerous  insurrection  in  the  prov- 
inces through  which  they  had  been  dispersed :  after  having  committed 
the  most  shocking  excesses,  they  were  subdued,  and  their  treason  pun- 
ished with  remorseless  severity.  Trajan  was  making  vigorous  prep- 
aratiorxS  to  regain  his  conquests,  when  he  was  attacked  by  dropsy  and 
palsy,  which  induced  him  to  return  to  Italy.  He,  however,  only  pro- 
ceeded so  far  as  Selinus  in  Cilicia,  when  the  disease  assumed  a  mortal 
character  ;  and  in  this  little  town  the  best  of  the  Roman  monarchs  died, 
in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  117).  His  ashes  were  carried 
to  Rome,  and  deposited  under  the  stately  column  he  had  erected  to 
commemorate  his  Dacian  victories,  though  it  stood  within  the  city, 
where  no  one  had  ever  been  buried  before.  One  stain  on  Trajan's 
character  must  not  be  omitted  ;  he  sanctioned  the  persecution  cf  the 
Christians,  and  even  when  convinced  that  they  were  innocent  of  the 
atrocious  charges  brought  against  them  by  the  pagans,  he  only  forbade 
inquisitions  to  be  made,  but  continued  the  punishment  of  all  who  were 
accused. 

Adrian,  the  cousin-german  and  pupil  of  Trajan,  succeeded  to  the  empire, 
it  is  said,  by  adoption  ;  but  there  is  some  reason  to  doubt  the  truth  of  the 
assertion.  A  much  stronger  claim  was  the  unanimous  declaration  of 
the  Asiatic  armies  in  his  favor,  whose  potent  choice  was  ratified  by  tha 
senate.     Anxious  to  preserve  peace,  he  at  once  abandoned  all  the  con- 

18 


5^74  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

quests  made  by  his  predecessors, both  in  Asia  and  Europe,  destroying 
the  bridges  over  the  Tigris  and  Danube.  On  his  return  to  Rome  the 
senate  offered  him  a  triumph,  whic^li  he  had  the  good  sense  to  refuse , 
at  the  same  tune,  to  show  his  moderation  and  love  of  tranquillity,  he 
diminished  the  military  establishments,  and  lowered  the  taxes  through- 
out the  empire.  But  the  virtues  of  Adrian  were  not  unaJloyed  ;  he  was 
a  cruel  persecutor  of  the  Jews  and  Christians  ;  he  allowed  himself  to 
be  influenced  by  unworthy  favorites,  and  too  often  lent  an  ear  to  the 
tales  of  slanderers  and  informers.  Deeming  that  all  parts  of  the  empire 
had  a  claim  to  the  protection  of  the  sovereign,  he  resolved  to  make  a 
tour  through  the  provinces,  and  began  his  course  by  visiting  Gaul. 
Germany,  and  Britain.  He  found  the  Britons  far  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion ;  but  no  longer  able  to  contend  with  the  barbarous  Caledonians. 
In  order  to  check  the  incursions  of  these  savages,  he  erected  the  first 
Roman  wall  from  the  Eden  to  the  Tyne,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  a 
preceding  chapter. 

He  twice  visited  Asia,  and  ordered  that  a  Roman  colony  should  be 
established  at  Jerusalem,  whose  name  he  changed  to  iElia  Capitolina 
(a.  d.  131).  The  introduction  of  idolatry  into  the  holy  "ity  pi\. yoked 
a  fierce  insurrection  of  the  Jews,  headed  by  an  impostor  calling  him- 
self Bar-Cochab  [the  son  of  a  star),  who  pretended  to  be  the  expected 
Messiah.  After  a  sanguinaiy  war,  which  lasted  three  years,  the  infat- 
uated insurgents  were  subdued,  but  their  revolt  was  punished  by  the 
most  horrible  cruelties,  and  their  name  and  nation  were  all  but  exter- 
minated. 

While  Adrian  continued  in  the  East,  Salfvius  Julianus,  the  most 
eminent  lawyer  in  the  empire,  was  employed  in  compiling  the  edictum 
verpeiuum,  a  code  containing  all  the  laws  which  had  been  published  by 
the  prjEtors  in  their  annual  edicts.  This  celebrated  statute  gave  per- 
manence and  uniformity,  to  the  system  of  Roman  jurisprudence,  and  in 
some  degree  raised  law  to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  Athens,  which  had 
long  been  neglected,  naturally  engaged  the  attention  of  a  sovereign  so 
enthusiastically  attached  to  literature  and  the  arts  as  Adrian.  He  com- 
pleted many  of  its  buildings,  which  had  remained  incomplete  since  the 
fall  of  the  republic,  and  added  so  many  new  edifices,  that  a  whole  quar- 
ter of  the  city  was  called  after  his  name.  In  commemoration  of  the 
great  benefits  he  had  conferred  on  the  empire  a  medal  was  struck  in  his 
honor,  bearing  the  inscription  Restitutori  orbis  terrdrum — "  to  the 
Restorer  of  the  World." 

On  his  return  to  Rome  he  fell  into  a  lingering  disease,  and  adopted 
Com'modus  Verus  as  his  successor ;  but  he  soon  repented  his  choice 
of  a  weak,  debauched  young  man,  whose  constitution  was  greatly  im- 
paired by  his  guilty  excesses.  When  he  was  sufficiently  recovered,  he 
retired  to  his  magnificent  villa  at  Tusculum  (T^t;oZ^),  where  he  sank  into 
the  same  filthy  debauchery  as  Tiberius  at  Capreae.  These  excesses 
brought  on  a  relapse  ;  sickness  rendered  him  cruel  and  jealous,  and 
some  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  Rome  were  sacrificed  to  his  diseased 
suspicions.  On  the  death  of  Verus,  Adrian  adopted  Titus  Antoninus, 
on  condition  of  his  adopting  Mar'cus  Aurelius  and  Verus,  the  son  of  his 
former  choice.  Scarcely  had  this  arrangement  been  completed  when 
the  emperor's  ailments  were  aggravated  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  medi- 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  272 

sines  could  give  him  relief ;  and,  through  impatience  of  pain,  he  made 
several  attempts  to  commit  suicide.  Hoping  for  some  relief  from  ba- 
thing, he  removed  to  Baia?,  where  he  soon  died  (a.  d.  139). 

Adrian,  by  his  cruelties  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  provoked  public 
hatred  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  senate  was  disposed  to  annul  all  his 
acts  ;  but  the  entreaties  of  Antoninus,  and  the  fear  of  the  soldiers,  with 
whom  Adrian  had  been  a  great  favorite,  induced  them  not  only  to  aban- 
don their  intention,  but  to  enrol  him  in  the  number  of  gods,  and  order 
tempkis  to  be  erected  to  his  honor. 

Antoninus,  immediately  after  his  accession,  gave  his  daivghter  Faus- 
tina in  marriage  to  Mar'cus  Aurelius,  procured  for  him  the  tribunitian 
and  proconsular  power  from  the  senate,  and  associated  him  in  all  the 
labors  of  government ;  but  he  showed  no  regard  for  the  profligate  young 
Verus,  whose  misconduct  he  tolerated  solely  from  respect  for  the 
memory  of  Adrian.  The  mild  and  merciful  reign  of  this  emperor 
deservedly  surnamed  Pius,  was  undoubtedly  the  most  tranquil  and  hap 
py  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  annals.  He  suspended  the  persecution  oi" 
the  Christians  througliout  the  empire,  and  ordered  that  their  accusers 
should  be  punished  as  calumniators.  Peace  prevailed  through  the  wide 
dominions  of  Rome  ;  the  virtues  of  the  sovereign  conciliated  the  afl^ec- 
tion  of  foreigners,  and  distant  nations  chose  him  to  arbitrate  their  differ- 
ences. For  the  first  time  the  government  of  the  provinces  engaged  the 
earnest  attention  of  the  sovereign  :  the  lieutenants  of  the  emperor,  per- 
ceiving that  their  conduct  was  closely  watched,  ceased  to  oppress  those 
intrusted  to  their  charge  ;  and  instead  of  seeing  their  revenues  wasted 
to  support  a  profligate  court,  or  gratify  a  degraded  populace,  the  provin- 
cials beheld  public  schools  erected  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  harbors 
cleaned  out  and  repaired,  new  marts  of  trade  opened,  and  every  exer- 
tion made  to  realize  the  magnificent  project  formed  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  of  constituting  an  empire  whose  parts  should  be  held  together  by 
the  bonds  of  commerce  and  mutual  interest.  After  a  useful  reign  of 
twenty-two  years,  the  prosperity  of  which  is  best  proved  by  its  afford- 
ing no  materials  for  history,  he  died  of  a  fever  at  one  of  his  villas,  be- 
queathing nothing  beyond  his  own  private  fortune  to  his  family  (a.  d. 
163).  The  Romans  venerated  so  highly  the  memory  of  this  excellent 
monarch,  that  during  the  greater  part  of  the  ensuing  century,  every 
emperor  deemed  it  essential  to  his  popularity  to  assume  the  surname  of 
Antoninus. 

Mar'cus  Aurelius,  surnamed  the  Philosopher,  on  account  of  his  at- 
tachment to  the  doctrines  and  austerities  of  the  Stoics,  succeeded  to  the 
empire  ;  but  his  power  was  shared  by  Lucius  Verus,  to  whom  he  gave 
his  daughter  in  marriage.  He  took,  however,  an  early  opportunity  of 
sending  his  unworthy  colleague  from  Rome,  intrusting  him  with  the 
command  of  the  army  sent  against  the  Parthians,  who  had  overrun 
Syria.  Verus  took  up  his  residence  at  Antioch,  where  he  abandoned 
himself  to  every  species  of  infamy  and  debauchery,  while  the  conduct 
of  the  war  was  intrusted  to  his  lieutenants.  Fortunately,  these  officers 
were  worthy  of  the  high  trust  confided  to  them :  they  upheld  the  repu- 
tation of  the  Roman  arms  in  four  brilliant  campaigns,  and  conquered 
some  of  the  principal  cities  of  Parthia. 

While  Verus  was  disgracing  himself  in  Asia,  Rome  enjoyed  happi« 


276  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

ness  and  tranquillity  under  the  merciful  but  firm  administration  of  Ai> 
relius.  But  this  prosperity  was  interrupted  by  the  return  of  Verus,  who 
came  to  claim  a  triumph  for  the  victories  obtained  by  his  officers.  The 
eastern  army  unfortunately  brought  the  plague  with  it  into  Europe :  in- 
fection was  communicated  to  every  province  through  which  they  passed: 
the  violence  of  the  pestilence  did  not  abate  for  several  years,  and 
among  its  victims  were  some  of  the  most  illustrious  men  in  Rome  and 
the  principal  cities  of  Italy. 

Scarcely  had  the  affairs  of  the  east  been  arranged,  when  a  dangerous 
war  was  commenced  by  the  Marcoman'ni  on  the  German  frontiers : 
both  emperors  took  the  field  ;  but  at  the  very  opening  of  the  campaign, 
Verus  fell  a  victim  to  his  intemperance  (a.  d.  171).  Aurelius  honored 
his  remains  with  a  magnificent  funeral,  and  even  persuaded  the  senate 
to  enrol  this  miserable  debauchee  in  the  number  of  the  gods.  The  em- 
peror now  devoted  his  entire  attention  to  the  conduct  of  the  German 
war ;  but  in  the  first  engagement  the  Romans  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter ;  and  it  was  only  by  the  sale  of  the  imperial  plate,  furni..  re, 
and  crown  jewels,  that  a  sum  could  be  raised  sufficient  to  repair  their 
great  losses.  Aurelius  having  by  this  sacrifice  assembled  a  fresh  army, 
soon  restored  the  fortime  of  the  empire.  He  took  up  his  residence  at 
Sir'mium  (Sirmich),  and  from  this  central  position  directed  the  move- 
ments of  his  officers,  whom  he  had  directed  to  harass  and  wear  out  the 
barbarians,  by  marches,  counter-marches,  and  skirmishes,  rather  than 
peril  their  armies  in  pitched  battles.  Once  only  he  abandoned  this 
prudent  policy,  advancing  beyond  the  Danube  into  the  territory  of  the 
Quadi.  This  temerity  had  nearly  proved  his  ruin :  the  barbarians, 
craftily  pretending  flight,  drew  the  Romans  into  a  barren  defile,  where 
the  army  was  on  the  point  of  perishing  by  thirst.  In  this  distress  the 
Romans  were  relieved  by  a  great  thunder-storm  ;  the  lightning  fired  the 
tents  of  their  enemies,  and  the  rain  relieved  their  pressing  wants.  The 
barbarians,  believing  this  event  miraculous,  at  once  submitted  ;  and  Au- 
relius was,  for  the  seventh  time,  proclaimed  imperator  by  the  senate. 
Many  ancient  fathers  ascribe  this  seasonable  shower  to  the  prayers  of 
a  Christian  legion  in  the  imperial  army ;  but  the  evidence  by  which  the 
miracle  is  supported  has  been  more  than  once  shown  to  be  a  fraudulent 
falsification. 

In  consequence  of  this  success,  the  German  nations  besought  terms 
of  peace,  which  Aurelius  readily  granted,  as  he  was  anxious  to  suppress 
a  dangerous  rebellion  in  the  east,  where  his  lieutenant,  Avid'ius  Cas'- 
sius,  had  proclaimed  himself  emperor.  But  Cas'sius,  though  a  formi- 
dable rival,  had  not  the  prudence  necessary  for  success  in  a  civil  war ; 
he  disgusted  his  soldiers  by  the  excessive  severity  of  his  discipline, 
and  was  murdered  by  one  of  his  own  centurions.  Aurelius  showed 
great  regret  for  the  destruction  of  his  rival,  lamenting  that  he  had  been 
deprived  of  an  opportunity  of  showing  mercy.  He  forbade  the  prose- 
cution of  those  who  had  joined  in  the  revolt,  and  took  the  young  family 
of  Cas'sius  under  his  own  protection.  Having  restored  tranquillity,  the 
smperor  returned  to  Rome,  which  he  entered  in  triumph  with  his  son 
Com'modus,  whom  he  had  recently  declared  his  successor,  and  invested 
with  the  tribunitian  power. 
Tiie  persecution  of  the  C  aristians  had  been  renewed  in  this  reiga 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  277 

probaJtly  at  the  instigation  of  the  vStoic  philosophers,  to  whom  the  su- 
perior purity  of  the  Christian  doctrines  gave  great  offence  ;  and  among 
the  m"st  illustrious  a  ictims  of  imperial  bigotry  was  the  celebrated  Jus'- 
tin  M.ir'tyr,  whose  apologies  for  Christianity,  addressed  to  the  emperors 
Antoninus  and  Aurelius,  are  among  the  best,  as  well  as  the  earliest 
works,  written  to  refute  the  calumnies  with  which  in  every  age  the  true 
faith  has  been  assailed.  Toward  the  close  of  his  reign  the  emperor 
became  more  tolerant;  some  say  in  consequence  of  the  miiaculous 
shower  ;  others,  with  more  probability,  ascribe  the  change  to  his  hav- 
ing learned  the  falsehood  of  the  charges  brought  against  the  Christians. 

Aurelius  had  not  been  long  in  Rome  when  war  was  unexpectedly  re- 
newed along  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  The  great  migration  of  nations, 
which  was  ere  long  to  change  the  entire  face  of  the  civilized  world, 
had  now  commenced,  and  the  German  tribes  along  the  frontiers,  pressed 
forward  by  hordes  in  their  rear,  were  necessarily  forced  to  encroach  on 
the  limits  of  the  empire.  So  formidable  was  the  invasion,  whose 
caiise  was  as  yet  unknown,  that  the  emperor  found  it  necessary  to  take 
the  field  in  person.  He  gained  several  important  victories,  and  was 
preparing  to  reduce  Germany  into  a  province,  when  he  was  seized  with 
a  violent  fever  at  Vindobona  {Vienna),  to  which  he  fell  a  victim  in  a 
few  days  (a.  d.  180).  The  glory  of  the  empire  may  be  said  to  have 
expired  with  Aurelius  :  he  was  the  last  emperor  who  made  the  good  of 
his  subjects  the  chief  object  of  his  government ;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
few  princes  who  attained  a  high  rank  in  literature.  His  Meditations, 
which  have  come  down  to  our  time,  contain  a  summary  of  the  best  rules 
for  a  virtuous  life  that  have  ever  been  devised  by  unassisted  reason  or 
simple  philosophy. 

Com'modus  was  the  first  emperor  that  was  born  in  his  father's  reign, 
and  the  second  that  received  the  empire  as  a  paternal  inheritance.  He 
had  been  spoiled  in  youth  by  his  mother  Faustina,  a  woman  of  very 
violent  passions  and  sanguinary  temper,  who  corrupted  her  son's  mind 
both  by  precept  and  example.  His  debaucheries  exceeded  those  of  all 
his  predee.^ssors  in  extravagance  and  iniquity :  even  his  own  sisters 
became  the  victims  of  his  lust,  and  one  of  them,  having  reproached 
him,  was  murdered  by  his  hand.  All  his  sports  were  cruel  :  he  loved 
to  roam  through  the  streets  wounding  and  slaying  the  unsuspicious  pas- 
sengers ;  he  frequently  contended  with  the  gladiators  on  the  pubhc 
stage,  and  delighted  to  display  feats  of  strength,  for  his  muscular  pow- 
ers were  unrivalled.  But  he  showed  no  disposition  for  foreign  war ; 
on  the  contrary,  he  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Quadi  and  Marco- 
man'ni,  abandoning  the  territories  that  had  been  conquered  by  his  fa- 
ther. An  attempt  made  to  asassinate  this  monster,  in  the  third  year  of 
his  reign,  stimulated  his  natural  cruelty  to  the  most  savage  excess  :  his 
assailant,  aiming  a  blow  at  him  with  a  dagger,  exclaimed,  "  The  senate 
sends  thee  this  !"  and  though  the  murder  was  prevented  by  the  prompt 
interference  of  the  guards,  the  words  sank  deep  into  the  emperor's 
breast,  and  thenceforward  he  showed  inveterate  suspicion  and  hatred 
to  the  whole  body  of  senators.  Scarcely  had  he  escaped  this  danger, 
when  he  was  exposed  to  one  more  formidable,  arising  from  the  war  of 
the  deserters.  A  common  soldier,  named  Mater'nus,  guilty  of  the  un- 
usual crime  of  abandoning  his  colors,  assembled  a  band  of  robbers  in 


378  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Gaul,  and  being  joined  by  profligates  from  every  part  of  llie  empire^ 
pillao-ed  and  laid  waste  that  province.  Being  reduced  to  great  straita 
by  the  exertions  of  Pescen'nius  Niger,  Mater'nus  divided  his  men  into 
several  small  bands,  and  marched  privately  with  them  by  different  ways 
into  Italy,  designing  to  murder  Com'modus  at  a  public  festival,  and  in 
the  confusion  seize  the  empire.  The  conspirators  reached  Rome  in 
safety,  but  just  as  the  plot  was  on  the  point  of  exploding,  they  were  be- 
trayed by  their  accomplices,  arrested,  and  put  to  death. 

An  alarming  insurrection  of  the  Roman  populace,  directed  not  so 
much  ao-ainst  the  emperor  as  his  minister  Clean'der  was  produced  by 
the  exhortations  of  an  unknown  woman  The  praetorian  horse  charged 
the  multitude,  but  were  defeated  with  loss,  as  cavalry  generally  are 
when  acting  against  a  mob  in  narrow  streets.  Com'modus,  alarmed  by 
the  tumult,  sacrificed  his  minister,  and  the  fury  of  the  Romans  was 
appeased. 

Having  formed  the  wild  project  of  entering  on  the  consular  dignity 
armed  as  a  gladiator,  and  marching  in  procession  from  the  gladiatorial 
school  instead  of  the  palace,  he  was  so  enraged  by  the  remonstrances 
of  his  concubine  Mar'cia,  that  he  resolved  to  put  her  to  death.  Having 
accidentally  discovered  her  danger,  she  determined  to  murder  Com'- 
modus, and  being  aided  by  some  officers  of  the  household,  strangled 
him  in  his  bed  (a.  d.  192).  No  sooner  was  his  death  known,  than  the 
senate,  without  waiting  for  the  return  of  day,  assembled  hastily,  annulled 
his  acts,  ordered  all  his  statues  to  be  thrown  down,  and  demanded  that 
his  body  should  be  dragged  through  the  streets  and  cast  into  the  Tiber. 
The  latter  indignity  was  prevented  by  a  private  and  hurried  funeral. 

Section  IV. — Foreign  Commerce  of  the  Romans  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines. 

If  the  reign  of  Augustus  be  justly  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  Ro- 
man literature,  those  of  the  Antonines,  including  even  that  of  the  wick- 
ed Com'modus,  deserve  to  be  honored  for  the  great  improvements  made 
in  trade  and  commerce  especially  by  the  opening  of  new  communica- 
tions with  India.  Tad'mor,  or  Palmyra,  the  wondrous  city  of  the  des- 
ert, distant  only  eighty-five  miles  from  the  Euphrates,  and  about  one  hun- 
dred and  seventeen  from  the  nearest  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  was 
the  centre  of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  southern  Persia,  including 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Indus,  and  the  districts  now  attached  to 
the  Bombay  presidency.  In  consequence  of  the  great  exports  that  this 
trade  naturally  caused  from  the  harbors  of  the  Levant,  great  numbers 
of  Syrian  merchants  settled  in  Rome,  some  of  whom  attained  the  high- 
est honors  of  the  state.  It  would  appear  that  some  merchants  used  a 
more  northern  route  by  the  Caspian  and  Oxus  ;  for  we  find  the  Roman 
geographers  tolerably  well  acquainted  with  the  countries  that  now  form 
the  kingdoms  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  The  great  caravan  route  across 
Asia,  however  commenced  at  Byzantium  [Constantinople],  which  waa 
long  the  seat  of  flourishing  commerce  before  it  became  the  metropolis 
of  an  empire.  Having  passed  the  Bos'phorus,  the  merchant  adventu- 
rers proceeded  through  Anatolia,  and  crossed  the  Euphrates  near  Hie- 
rap'olis  (^Bambucli) ;  thence  they  proceeded  to  Ecbatana  (Hamadan),  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  Medes,  and  Hecatompy'los  {Damaghan),  the  me- 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  279 

tropolis  of  the  Parthians.  Thence  they  proceeded  circiiitously  to  Hyr- 
cania  (Jorjan)  and  A'ria  {Herat).  Finally  they  came  to  Bactra  (Bulkh), 
long  the  principal  mart  of  central  Asia.  From  Bactra  there  were  two 
caravan  routes,  one  to  north  India,  over  the  western  part  of  the  Hima- 
laya, called  the  Indian  Caucasus  (Hindu  Kush),  the  other  toward  the 
frontiers  of  Ser'ica  {China),  over  the  lofty  mountain-chain  of  Imaus 
{Belur  Tag),  through  a  winding  ravine  which  was  marked  by  a  celebra- 
ted station  called  the  Stone  Tower,  whose  ruins  are  said  still  to  exist, 
under  the  name  of  Chihel  Sulun,  or  the  Forty  Columns-  Little  was 
known  of  the  countries  between  the  Iraaus  and  Ser'ica,  which  were  prob- 
ably traversed  by  Bactrian  rather  than  European  merchants  ;  but  the 
road  was  described  as  wonderfully  difficult  and  tedious. 

As  the  progress  of  the  caravans  was  liable  to  frequent  interrupticiis 
from  the  Parthians,  and  the  conveyance  of  manufactured  silks  through 
the  deserts  very  toilsome,  the  emperor  Antoninus  attempted  to  open  a 
communication  with  the  Chinese  by  sea.  Of  this  singular  transaction 
no  record  has  yet  been  found  in  any  of  the  Greek  or  Latin  authors  ; 
but  M.  de  Guignes  discovered  it  stated  in  a  very  old  Chinese  historical 
work,  that  an  embassy  had  come  by  sea  from  Antun,  the  king  of  the 
people  of  the  western  ocean,  to  Yan-ti,  or  rather  Han-huan-ti,  who 
ruled  over  China  in  the  hundred  and  sixty-sixth  year  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  name  and  date  sufficiently  identify  Antun  with  Antoninus,  and 
the  projected  intercourse  was  well  worthy  the  attention  of  that  en- 
Jightened  emperor ;  but  nothing  is  known  respecting  the  results  of  this 
embassy. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  great  increase  of  intercourse  between 
Egypt  and  India,  when  the  former  country  was  governed  by  the  Ptole- 
mies. The  navigation  was  long  confined  to  circuitous  voyages  round 
ihe  peninsula  of  Arabia  and  ihe  coasts  of  the  Persian  gulf;  but  about 
a  century  after  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  dominion,  Har'palus, 
the  commander  of  a  ship  long  engaged  in  the  Indian  trade,  observing 
ihe  regular  changes  of  the  periodical  winds,  ventured  to  steer  from  the 
Angus'tiaj  Durse  {straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  or  "  the  Gate  of  Tears ") 
right  across  the  Erythraean  sea  {Indian  ocean),  and  was  wafted  by  the 
western  monsoon  to  Musiris  (Marjan),  on  the  Malabar  coast.  This 
great  improvement  was  deservedly  regarded  as  of  the  highest  import- 
ance ;  and  the  western  monsoon  received  the  name  of  Har'palus,  in 
memory  of  the  courageous  navigator,  who  had  turned  it  to  such  a  good 
account. 

The  route  of  the  Egyptian  trade  under  the  Romans  has  been  de- 
scribed with  considerable  accuracy  by  Pliny.  Cargoes  destined  for 
India  were  carried  up  the  Nile  in  beats  to  Cop'tos  {Ghouft),  thence  they 
were  transferred  by  caravans  to  My'os  Hor'mus  {Cosscir),  or  Berenice 
(Hubbesh).  The  latter,  though  the  longer,  was  the  more  frequented 
road,  because  the  Ptolemies  had  raised  excellent  stations  and  watering- 
places  at  convenient  distances  along  the  road.  From  Berenice  the  fleet 
sailed  in  June  or  July  for  O'celis  {Gella),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arabian 
gulf,  and  Cane  {Far lash),  a  promontory  and  emporium  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  Arabia  Felix.  Thence  they  steered  right  across  the 
>cean  for  the  Malabar  coast,  and  usually  made  Musiris  in  forty  days. 
rhey  began  their  voyage  homeward  early  in  December,  and  generally 


280  ANCIENT  HISTORV 

encountered  more  difficulty  on  their  return  on  account  of  the  unsteadi 
ness  of  the  winds. 

The  chief  imports  from  India  were  spices,  precious  stones,  and  mus 
lins.     There  is  a  singular  confusion  in  the  Latin  authors  between  the 
liner  cotton  goods  and  manufactured  silks,  which  has  led  to  their  mix 
ing  up  the  Chinese  and  Indian  trade  together.     The  principal  exports 
were  light  woollens,  chequered  linens,  glass,  wine,  and  bullion. 

Com'modus,  with  a  providence  which  could  scarcely  have  been  ex- 
pected from  him,  made  some  efforts  to  open  the  old  Carthaginian  trade 
with  the  interior  of  Africa ;  but  the  result  of  his  labors  is  unknown. 
He  also  paid  some  attention  to  the  corn-trade,  so  essential  to  the  pros- 
perity of  his  central  dominions,  when  Italy  had  long  ceased  to  produce 
sufficient  grain  for  the  support  of  its  inhabitants  ;  and  he  established  a 
company  to  supply  corn  from  northern  Africa  whenever  the  crops  failed 
in  Egypt. 

The  trade  of  the  Black  sea,  so  flourishing  in  the  age  cf  the  Greek 
republics,  appears  to  have  been  greatly  diminished  after  the  Romans 
became  masters  of  the  countries  at  both  sides  of  the  ^Egean ;  and  it 
seems  probable  that  little  or  no  commerce  passed  through  the  straits  of 
Hercules  (straits  of  Gibraltar)  into  the  Atlantic  ocean.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  change,  the  amber-trade  was  transferred  from  the  coasts 
of  the  northern  sea  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  the  barbarous 
tribes  who  brought  it  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  are  said  to  have  been 
astonished  at  the  prices  they  received  for  what  seemed  to  them  so  use- 
less a  commodity.  Furs  were  purchased  from  the  Scythian  tribes  ;  but 
tliis  branch  of  trade  appears  never  to  have  been  of  any  great  amount. 
The  British  tin-trade  was  rather  neglected  by  the  Romans  ;  indeed,  it 
appears  to  have  been  monopolized  by  the  Gauls,  and  consequently  was 
confined  to  the  British  channel.  From  this  slight  sketch  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  Romans  were  not  naturally  a  mercantile  people.  We  must  now 
return  to  the  history  of  the  civil  wars  and  revolutions  which  frustrated 
the  plans  of  the  Antonines  for  making  commercial  pursuits  the  source 
of  unity  and  happiness  to  the  empire. 

Section  Y.—From  the  Extinction  of  the  Flavian  Family  to  the  Establish 
ment  of  Military  Despotism,  after  the  murder  of  Alexander  Severus. 

FROM    A.  D.    192    TO    A.  D.    235. 

After  the  conspirators  had  murdered  Com'modus,  they  proceeded 
to  the  house  of  Pub'lius  Hel'vius  Per'tinax,  and  declared  that  they  had 
come  to  offer  him  the  empire,  as  being  the  person  who  best  deserved 
sovereignty.  Per'tinax  at  first  believed  that  this  was  some  plot  for  his 
destruction  ;  but  on  further  inquiry,  having  learned  that  Com'modus  was 
really  dead,  he  proceeded  to  the  praetorian  camp,  and  v/as  saluted  em- 
peror rather  reluctantly  by  the  guards.  He  met  a  much  warmer  recep- 
tion from  the  senators,  who  expected  that  his  firmness  and  virtue  would 
be  displayed  in  checking  the  turbulence  of  the  soldiers,  now  the  real 
masters  of  the  empire.  Nor  did  his  conduct  disappoint  their  expecta- 
tions :  he  diminished  the  lavish  expenditure  of  the  palace,  restored  the 
property  that  his  predecessor  had  unjustly  confiscated  to  the  rightful 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  281 

owners,  and  punished  those  who,  by  false  informations,  had  stimulated 
Com'modus  to  cruelty.  These  reforms  endeared  him  to  the  senate  and 
people,  but  provoked  the  anger  of  the  turbulent  praetorians :  three  days 
after  his  accession,  they  attempted  to  make  Laciv'ius  emperor,  but  that 
senator  fled  from  their  violence  and  sought  shelter  with  Per'tinax  him- 
self. Their  next  choice  was  the  consul  Fal'co,  who  showed  equal  re- 
luctance to  accept  the  precarious  station.  The  emperor,  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  similar  outrages,  prepared  to  restore  the  ancient  military 
discipline  ;  but  this  exasperated  the  mutineers  still  more,  and  a  party  of 
them,  breaking  suddenly  into  the  palace,  slew  Per'tinax,  after  a  brief 
reign  of  less  than  three  months.  The  Romans  lamented,  but  did  not 
venture  to  revenge  his  death  ;  most  of  the  citizens  shut  themselves  up  in 
their  houses,  leaving  the  soldiers  to  choose  a  master  for  the  empire  at 
their  discretion. 

When  the  prastorians  heard  that  Per'tinax  was  dead,  they  issued  a 
proclamation,  declaring  that  the  empire  was  for  sale,  and  would  be 
given  to  the  highest  bidder.  Did''ius  Julianus,  the  wealthiest  man  in 
Rome,  offered  to  become  a  purchaser ;  his  money,  and  his  promise  that 
he  would  restore  all  things  to  the  condition  in  which  they  were  under 
Com'modus,  so  pleased  the  dissolute  soldiers,  that  they  proclaimed 
hnn  emperor,  and  compelled  the  senate  to  recognise  their  choice.  But 
the  Roman  populace  showed  their  indignation  at  this  scandalous  traffic 
by  showering  curses  and  reproaches  on  Did'ius  whenever  he  appeared 
in  public,  and  even  assailing  him  with  stones  and  other  missiles.  The 
weak  emperor  bore  these  attacks  with  great  equanimity,  relying  for  se- 
curity on  the  praetorians,  whose  favor  he  secured  by  fresh  largesses. 

Put  though  Did'ius,  by  the  favor  of  the  household  troops,  was  able 
to  secure  himself  in  Rome,  he  could  not  secure  the  respect  or  allegiance 
of  the  provinces  ;  and  the  distant  armies,  deeming  that  they  had  as  good 
a  right  to  confer  empire  as  the  praetorian  cohorts,  offered  sovereignty 
to  their  commanders.  Three  competitors  together  appeared  to  contest 
the  throne  with  the  ambitious  merchant ;  Clodius  Albi'nus  in  Britain, 
Pescen'nius  Niger  in  Syria,  and  Septim'ius  Severus  in  Illyria.  Did'ius 
prepared  to  meet  the  storm  with  more  fortitude  than  could  have  been 
expected;  he  convoked  the  senate,  and  had  Severus,  the  nearest  of  hia 
rivals,  declared  a  public  enemy :  he  also  sent  deputies  to  exhort  the 
Illyrian  soldiers  to  return  to  their  allegiance.  But  the  unfortunate  em- 
peror was  betrayed  by  his  own  officers ;  the  deputies  tendered'  their 
homage  to  Severus,  and  exhorted  him  to  expedite  his  march  toward 
Rome.  The  rapid  advance  of  the  Illyrians,  the  capture  of  Ravenna 
and  the  Roman  fleet,  and  the  desertion  of  the  troops  sent  to  guard  the 
passes  of  the  Apennines,  so  alarmed  the  praetorians,  ^hat  they  resolved 
to  abandon  Did'ius,  and  make  terms  with  Severus.  They  communica- 
ted their  resolutions  to  the  consul,  who  forthwith  convoked  the  senate. 
A  decree  was  passed  for  the  deposition  and  death  of  Did'ius,  and  ere  it 
was  enrolled,  the  band  of  executioners  was  on  its  march  to  the  palace 
Did'ius  was  foimd  trembling  and  in  tears,  ready  to  resign  empire,  pro 
vided  his  life  might  be  spared.  At  sight  of  the  armed  band,  he  ex 
claimed  "  What  crime  have  1  committed  ?  whose  life  have  I  taken 
away  ?"  But  his  remonstrances  were  cut  short,  by  one  of  the  soldiers.. 
who  struck  off  his  head.     The  body  was  exposed  to  insult  and  mockery 


282  /  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

in  the  public  streers,  and  thus  ended  the  two  months'  reign  of  '  the  inn 
perial  merchant." 

Severus,  as  he  approached  Rome,  issued  orders  for  the  executioa  of 
all  who  had  shared  in  the  murder  of  Per'tinax,  and  for  di.sbanding  the 
praetorian  cohorts  ;  but  he  chose  new  guards,  four  times  as  numerous, 
in  the  place  of  those  he  had  dismissed,  which  filled  Rome  with  soldiers, 
and  proved  the  fruitful  source  of  many  future  disorders.  Having  con- 
ciliated Al'binus  by  procuring  for  him  the  titles  of  Ctesar  and  emperor 
from  the  senate,  he  marched  to  contend  against  Pescen'nius  Niger  in 
the  east,  previously  inducing  the  senate  to  declare  him  a  public  enemy. 
His  progress  appears  to  have  been  uninterrupted  until  he  reached 
Cyz'icus,  where  he  routed  the  lieutenant  of  his  rival,  and  by  this  vic- 
tory gained  possession  of  lower  Asia.  Niger  did  not  despair,  but  col- 
lecting a  numerous  army,  occupied  the  mountain-passes  between  Cilicia 
and  Syria,  posting  his  main  body  along  the  Is'sus,  where  Alexander 
and  Darius  had  long  before  contended  for  the  sovereignty  of  Asia. 
After  several  engagements,  Niger  was  completely  defeated:  he  at- 
tempted to  seek  safety  among  the  Parthians,  but  was  overtaken  near 
Antioch,  and  put  to  death  (a.  d.  194).  Severus  made  a  cruel  use  of 
his  victory,  slaughtering  without  mercy  all  who  had  favored  the  cause 
of  his  competitor.  Byzantium  remained  faithful  to  the  defeated  general 
even  after  his  death:  it  sustained  a  siege  of  three  years'  duratioji ;  but 
was  finally  taken  by  storm,  its  inhabitants  sold  as  slaves,  and  its  walls 
levelled  to  the  ground. 

Thus  successful,  Severus  resolved  to  destroy  Al'binus,  whose  sus- 
picions he  had  calmed  while  he  was  engaged  in  war  with  Niger.  He 
first  attempted  to  remove  him  by  assassination  ;  but  Al'binus  discovered 
the  plot,  and  made  vigorous  preparations  for  open  Avar.  This  second 
contest  for  empire  was  decided  in  Gaul ;  Al'binus,  having  been  com- 
pletely routed  near  Lugdunum  (Lyons),  committed  suicide  ;  and  Severus 
could  only  vent  his  brutal  spite  on  a  senseless  carcass.  The  friends 
of  Al'binus  met  the  same  fate  as  the  partisans  of  Niger.  Severus  re- 
turned to  Rome,  where  he  insulted  the  senate  by  pronouncing  a  labored 
eulogy  on  Com'modus  ;  and  imitated  that  wicked  monarch's  example, 
by  sentencing  to  a  cruel  death  the  most  eminent  of  the  nobility. 

A  war  with  Parthia  recalled  the  emperor  to  Asia.  He  was  accom 
panied  by  his  sons  Caracal'la  and  Geta,  who  were,  like  their  father, 
learncjd  in  camps  from  infancy.  Severus  obtained  distinguished  suc- 
cess ;  he  captured  Seleiicia,  Ctes'iphon,  and  Bab'ylon  ;  but  he  was  com- 
pelled to  raise  the  siege  of  Hat'ra  (Hadhr),  which  had  previously 
baffled  the  exertions  of  Trajan.  These  exploits  might  have  procured 
the  empire  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  rule  of  a  gallant 
soldier,  had  not  Severus  chosen  for  his  prime  minister  Plautianus,  the 
captain  of  the  prfetorian  guards  :  a  man  of  insatiable  avarice,  whom  he 
intrusted  with  almost  absolute  power.  The  ruin  of  the  premier,  how- 
ever, was  occasioned  by  the  very  means  he  took  to  confirm  his  secu- 
rity :  he  procured  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  with  Caracal'la ;  but 
the  young  prince,  disgusted  by  her  imperious  temper,  became  the  bitter 
enemy  of  her  and  Plautianus.  He  soon  inspired  his  father  with  a  sus- 
picion that  the  minister  secretly  aimed  at  empire  ;  a  charge  to  which 
the  conduct  of  Plautianus  gave  some  color  of  probability ;  and  when 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  283 

Severus  called  his  servant  to  account,  the  prince  rushed  upon  him,  and 
slew  him  in  the  imperial  presence. 

A  revolt  in  Britain  once  more  called  the  emperor  into  the  field.  lie 
proceeded  to  that  island,  easily  quelled  the  disturbances,  and  marching 
northward,  gained  several  victories  over  the  Caledonians.  He  extended 
the  frontiers  beyond  Adrian's  wall,  and  erected  a  new  line  of  fortifica- 
tions between  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth ;  but  .he  additional  ter- 
ritory was  abandoned  in  the  reign  of  his  successor.  The  fatigues  of 
these  campaigns,  and  the  grief  caused  by  the  misconduct  of  his  son 
Caracal'la,  brought  the  emperor's  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 
He  died  at  Eboracum  (York),  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d. 
211).  Severus  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  great  rather  than  good 
princes  ;  he  was  cruel  on  system,  attributmg  the  misfortunes  of  Pompey 
and  the  murder  of  Caesar  to  their  excessive  clemency :  indeed,  he 
wrote  a  vindication  of  his  excessive  severity,  which,  imfortunaiely,  has 
not  come  down  to  our  times. 

Caracal'la  and  Geta  succeeded  their  father ;  but  lie  former  was  the 
bitter  enemy  of  his  more  virtuous  brother,  and  soon  after  his  return  to 
Rome,  he  slew  him  in  his  mother's  arms.  To  prevent  the  consequen- 
ces of  this  atrocious  murder,  he  gained  the  support  of  the  praetorian 
cohorts  by  large  donatives,  and  then,  with  strange  inconsistency,  pre- 
vailed upon  the  senate  to  rank  his  brother  in  the  number  of  the  gods. 
His  sole  dependance  being  on  the  army,  he  used  the  most  iniquitous 
means  to  procure  money  for  purchasing  their  venal  support.  The 
richest  men  in  Rome  were  massacred  under  false  accusations  of  trea- 
son, their  properties  confiscated,  and  their  families  insulted.  He  im- 
poverished his  subjects  in  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire  by  excessive 
taxes ;  yet  he  gave  away  such  immense  sums  to  his  guards,  and  paid 
such  heavy  annuities  to  the  barbarous  tribes  on  the  frontiers,  that  he 
was  forced  to  debase  the  coinage.  To  lower  the  pride  of  the  Romans, 
he  granted  the  name  and  privileges  of  free  citizens  to  all  the  subjects 
of  the  empire,  and  soon  after  commenced  a  tour  through  the  provinces, 
to  escape  from  his  unpopularity  at  home.  He  undertook  an  expedition 
against  the  Cat'ti  and  AUeman'ni,  but  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  and 
forced  to  buy  a  peace.  From  Germany  he  passed  into  Asia,  where  he 
gained  some  advantages  over  the  Armenians  ;  and  then  visiting  Egypt, 
he  almost  depopulated  Alexandria,  massacring  the  greater  part  of  its 
citizens,  on  account  of  some  lampoons  that  had  been  published  against 
him.  He  was  at  length  assassinated  near  Edes'sa  by  Macrinus,  the 
prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard,  an  officer  who  since  the  time  of  Se- 
verus, ranked  next  to  the  emperor  (a.  d.  217). 

The  soldiers  were  greatly  enraged  at  the  murder  of  Caracal'la ;  but 
Macrinus,  by  concealing  his  share  in  it,  procured  his  election  to  the 
empire.  Immediately  after  his  accession,  hi  proclaimed  his  son  Dia- 
dumenus  his  successor,  giving  him  the  names  of  Caesar  and  x\ntoninus : 
when  the  troops  were  assembled  to  witness  this  ceremony,  they  de< 
manded,  with  one  accord,  the  deification  of  Caracal'la  ;  and  this  dis- 
grace to  humanity  was  actually  ranked  among  the  gods.  While  he 
was  thus  engaged,  the  Parthians  passed  the  Roman  frontiers,  defeated 
the  imperial  armies,  and  compelled  Macrinus  to  purchase  a  disgraceful 
peace  by  a  vast  sacrifice  of  wealth  and  territory      His  extreme  severity 


284  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

at  length  provoked  the  resentment  of  the  licentious  soldiery  ._  they  weia 
persuaded  by  Mce'sa,  maternal  aunt  of  the  late  emperor,  that  her  grand 
son  Heliogabalus,  a  youth  of  fourteen,  was  the  son  of  their  favorite 
Caracal'la  ;  and  a  conspiracy  was  formed  to  place  this  young  Syrian 
priest  upon  the  throne.  Macrinus,  deserted  by  most  of  the  legions, 
marched  against  his  competitor  with  the  praetorian  cohorts ;  but  he  fled 
from  his  men  the  moment  that  a  battle  commenced ;  and  the  guards, 
enraged  by  his  cowardice,  pursued  and  slew  him  (a.  d.  218).  His  son 
was  at  the  same  time  taken  prisoner,  and  executed  as  a  common  male- 
factor. 

Heliogabalus  being  thus  victorious,  sent  intelligence  of  his  success 
from  Antioch  to  the  senate,  and  was  immediately  acknowledged  emperor. 
Though  a  mere  boy,  he  was  the  most  infamous  monster  that  ever  dis- 
graced a  throne.  He  exceeded  Nero  in  cruelty,  Calig'ula  in  piodigality, 
and  Com'modus  in  lewdness  and  debauchery.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
in  Rome,  he  brought  his  grandmother  to  the  senate,  and  ordered  that 
he  should  for  the  future  rank  among  the  members ;  he  also  instituted  a 
a  senate  of  women,  under  the  presidency  of  his  mother,  the  subjects  of 
whose  debates,  consultations,  and  decrees,  were  the  dresses  of  the 
Roman  ladies,  and  the  ceremony  and  etiquette  to  be  observed  in  visits 
and  entertainments.  The  Roman  ladies  scarcely  wanted  such  an  in- 
centive, they  were  at  this  time  remarkable  for  the  great  attention  they 
paid  to  decorating  their  persons,  and  especially  ornamenting  the  head  ; 
false  hair  was  very  commonly  worn,  and  imported  from  Gaul,  Germany, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe. 

The  lascivious  and  superstitious  idolatry  of  Syria  was  established  in 
Rome,  and  the  old  forms  of  the  national  worship  neglected — a  change 
which  gave  great  offence  even  to  the  demoralized  guards.  Mce'sa, 
foreseeing  that  the  Romans  would  not  long  endure  the  yoke  of  so  con- 
temptible a  profligate,  persuaded  him  to  nominate  his  cousin,  the  vir- 
tuous Alexander  Severus,  heir  to  the  empire  ;  but  scarcely  had  the  ap- 
pointment been  made,  when  Heliogabalus  attempted  to  assassinate  the 
worthy  prince.  This  crime  provoked  a  mutiny  of  the  praetorian  cohorts. 
Heliogabalus,  and  his  mother  Soe'mis,  were  murdered  by  the  enraged 
soldiers,  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the  Tiber  (a.  d.  222).  The 
senate  imni  sdiately  passed  a  decree  excluding  women  from  their  body 
for  ever. 

Alexander  Severus  commenced  his  reign  by  revoking  all  the  edicts 
that  had  been  issued  by  former  emperors  against  the  Christians.  It  is 
probable  that  his  mother  was  a  convert  to  the  faith  ;  for  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  its  principles,  and  constantly  repeated  the  golden  rule, 
"  Do  unto  others  as  you  would  they  should  do  unto  you,"  which  he 
caused  to  be  inscribed  on  his  palace  and  several  other  edifices.  Sup- 
jorted  by  the  favor  of  the  guards,  he  introduced  many  beneficial  re- 
forms, restoring  the  authority  of  the  senate,  and  purifying  the  adminis- 
tion  of  justice. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  226),  an  important  revolution  m 
the  east  produced  a  total  change  in  the  political  condition  of  central 
Asia.  Ardeshir  Babegan,  called  Artaxerxes  by  the  western  writers, 
restored  the  ancient  dynasty  and  religion  of  Persia,  or,  as  it  was  called 
by  the  natives    Iran.     His    standard  was  the  apron  of  a  blacksmith 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  385 

named  Gavah,  who,  at  an  unknown  age,  had  headed  an  insurrection 
against  the  oppressors  of  his  country,  similar  to  that  of  Wat  Tyler  in 
England.  Multitudes  flocked  to  the  popular  flag,  and  the  Parthian,  or 
Arsacid  dynasty,  was  speedily  subverted.  One  great  efiect  of  this  rev- 
olution was  to  give  a  sudden  and  complete  check  to  the  progress  of 
Chris'ianily  eastward  ;  it  was  thrown  back  upon  the  west ;  but  it  long 
retained  the  marks  of  its  contact,  with  the  mystic  and  gloomy  doctrnics 
that  have  from  unknown  ages  prevailed  in  central  Asia.  The  iNIagiar. 
religion  was  restored  to  its  pristine  splendor  :  the  sacred  fire,  that  had 
been  concealed  in  the  mountains,  once  more  burned  on  ihe  ancien* 
altars  ;  and  the  Sassanides,  as  Ardeshir's  dynasty  was  named  from 
Sassan,  the  most  celebrated  of  his  ancestors,  refused  to  tolerate  any 
faith  but  that  of  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroaster. 

The  great  aim  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty  was  to  restore  the  nationality 
of  Persia  ;  many  of  the  edifices  of  the  Hystaspid  times  were  repaired, 
and  all  new  buildings  erected  by  the  successors  of  Ardeshir  were,  as 
much  as  possible,  constructed  on  ancient  models.  Hence  many  of  their 
buildings  are  attributed  to  the  earlier  races  of  kings  ;  and  it  is  not  often 
easy  to  determine  from  external  evidence  to  which  age  of  Persian  his- 
tory their  splendid  halls  and  palaces  should  be  assigned.  The  remains 
of  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  Persian  kings  in  Ctesiphon,  which 
bears  the  name  of  Cyrus,  may  be  unquestionably  regarded  as  a  Sassanid 
monument ;  and  as  such  the  building  afibrds  proof  of  the  great  power 
and  wealth  of  the  house  of  Sassan. 

Ardeshir,  placed  upon  the  throne  of  Cyrus,  claimed  that  monarch's 
empire  as  his  inheritance,  and  prepared  to  drive  the  Romans  from  Asia. 
Alexander  hastened  to  Antioch,  and  marched  against  the  Persians,  over 
whom  he  gained  a  great  victory  ;  but  a  pestilence  breaking  out  in  his 
army  prevented  him  from  improving  his  advantages.  He  returned  to 
Rome,  and  entered  the  city  in  triumph,  his  chariot  being  drawn,  not,  as 
was  usual,  by  four  white  horses,  but  by  four  of  the  elephants  he  had 
captured.  Soon  after  his  return,  intelligence  arrived  that  the  Germans 
had  passed  the  Rhine,  and  were  devastating  Gaul ;  upon  which  the 
emperor,  to  the  gFjjat  grief  of  the  senate  and  people,  led  his  victorious 
armies  to  protect  that  province.  He  found  the  legions  quartered  in 
Gaul  demoralized  by  a  long  course  of  indulgence,  and  immediately  ex- 
erted himself  to  restore  the  ancient  discipline.  The  licentious  soldiers 
could  not  endure  the  change,  and  their  discontents  were  fomented  by 
Maximin,  a  Thracian  peasant,  who  had  risen  from  the  ranks  to  high 
command  by  his  uncommon  strength  and  valor.  The  prince's  guards 
were  bribed  to  quit  their  posts  ;  and  a  band  of  assassins  entering  the 
imperial  tent  slew  him  without  resistance  (a.  d.  235).  Thus  fell  this 
excellent  prince  in  the  very  bloom  of  youth,  just  as  his  plans  for  resto- 
ring the  ancient  glory  of  the  empire  were  beginning  to  be  matured. 

Section  VI. — From  the  Murder  of  Alexander  to  the  Capiivily  of  Valerian 
and  the  Usurpation  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

FROM  A.  D.  235    TO    A.  D.  259. 

The  murder  of  Alexander  occasioned  a  great  tumult,  and  confusioa 
ia  the  camp,  during  which  the  Pannonians  proclaimed  Maximin  em 


286  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

peror  ;  and  the  rest  of  the  army  seeing  no  other  candidate  come  for 
ward,  acquiesced  in  their  choice.  Great  personal  strength  was  the 
first  cause  of  the  new  emperor's  elevation :  it  is  said  he  could  draw  a 
wagon  which  two  oxen  could  not  move,  tear  trees  up  by  the  roots,  and 
crush  pebbles  to  dust  in  his  hands.  But  he  was  a  brutal,  ignorant  bar- 
barian, uniting  the  cunning  to  the  ferocity  of  a  savage.  He  commenced 
his  reign  by  massacring  all  who  had  been  intimate  with  the  late  emperor, 
or  who  had  shown  sorrow  for  his  death ;  and  he  sent  orders  to  the- 
senate  to  register  his  sanguinary  decrees^  without  asking  that  body  to 
confirm  his  election.  The  war  against  the  Germans  was  continjed 
with  great  success  ;  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  their  villages  were  burned 
to  the  ground  ;  their  country,  to  an  extent  of  four  hundred  square  mile? 
laid  desolate  ;  and  an  incredible  number  of  prisoners  sent  to  be  sold  as 
slaves  in  Italy.  Maxiniin  marched  next  against  the  D^-rians  and 
Sarmatians,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories  ;  and  >.  is  believed 
that  he  would  have  extended  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  to  the  norihern 
ocean,  had  not  his  avarice  and  cruelty  provoked  a  civil  war.  The 
revolt  commenced  in  Africa,  where  two  young  men  of  high  rank  being 
condemned  by  the  emperor's  receiver-general  to  pay  a  fine  that  would 
have  reduced  them  to  beggary,  conspired  to  save  their  fortunes  by  de- 
stroying hnn  ;  they  were  joined  by  several  of  the  legionaries,  and  so 
rapid  was  their  success,  that  they  ventured  to  proclaim  Gordian,  pro- 
consul of  Africa,  then  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  sovereign  of  the 
empire.  When  news  of  this  event  reached  Rome,  the  senators  with 
one  accord  revolted  from  Maximin,  and  ordered  all  his  friends  in  the 
city  to  be  murdered.  Intelligence  of  these  events  being  conveyed  to 
Maximin,  he  made  peace  with  the  northern  barbarians,  and  led  his 
army  toward  Italy,  promising  his  soldiers  that  they  should  be  enriched 
by  the  forfeited  estates  of  his  enemies.  On  his  march  he  learned  that 
Gordian  and  his  son  had  been  defeated  and  slain  by  Capelianus  in 
Africa,  but  that  the  senate,  undaunted  by  this  calamity,  had  conferred  the 
empire  on  Pupienus  and  Balbinus.  This  choice  did  not  satisfy  the 
people  ;  a  vast  multitude  assembled  while  the  new  emperors  were  offer- 
ing the  usual  sacrifice,  and  demanded  with  loud  clamor  a  prince  of  the 
Gordian  family.  After  vainly  attempting  to  disperse  the  mob,  Balbinus 
and  Pupienus  sent  for  young  Gordian,  then  only  twelve  years  old,  and 
proclaimed  him  Cajsar.  In  the  meantime,  Maximin  entered  Italy,  and 
laid  siege  to  Aquileia.  Ttie  garrison  made  a  very  brave  defence  ;  and 
the  besiegers,  hated  by  the  entire  empire,  suffered  more  than  the 
besieged,  their  stragglers  being  cut  off,  and  their  convoys  intercepted. 
Exasperated  by  their  suficrings,  the  imperialists  resolved  to  remove  the 
cause  ;  a  large  body  marched  in  the  noonday  to  the  tent  of  Maximin, 
and  slew  him,  his  son,  and  all  his  principal  favorites  (a.  d.  238). 
Though  several  legions  of  Pannonians  and  Thracians  were  in  the  camp, 
they  did  not  attempt  to  revenge  the  death  of  an  emperor  who  had 
always  shown  more  favor  to  the  barbarian  than  the  Roman  legions. 

Scarcely  had  domestic  tranquillity  been  restored,  when  the  empire 
was  involved  ir  foreign  wars.  The  Car'pi  and  Goths,  passing  the 
Danube,  ravaged  the  province  of  Mcs'sia ;  while  the  Persians  renewed 
iheir  hostilities  on  the  eastern  frontiers.  It  was  agreed  among  the 
princes,  that  Pupienus  should  undertake  the  defence  of  Syria,  Balbinus 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


287 


march  against  the  Golns,  and  Gordian  remain  at  the  head  of  tne  admin- 
istration in  Rome.  13 ut  while  the  necessary  armaments  weie  in  prepa- 
ration, a  dangerous  mutiny  broke  out  among  the  praetorians  :  Pupienus 
and  Balbinus,  divided  by  mutual  jealousies,  could  not  unite  for  its  sup- 
pression :  they  Avere  both  murdered,  and  young  Gordian  remained  sole 
emperor. 

Misith'eus,  captain  of  the  praetorian  guards,  and  father-in-law  of  the 
emperor,  acted  as  minister  and  guardian  of  young  Gordian.  He  was  . 
admirably  qualified  for  such  an  important  office,  uniting  the  valor  of  a 
soldier  to  the  wisdom  of  a  statesman.  The  rapid  successes  of  Shah 
piir,  or,  as  he  was  called  by  the  Romans,  Sapor,  the  second  prince  of 
the  Sassanid  dynasty,  directed  the  attention  of  the  emperor  to  the  Per- 
sian war,  and  he  went  in  person  to  protect  the  province  of  Syria.  On 
his  march  toward  the  Hellespont,  Gordian  was  defeated  in  a  tumultu- 
ous engagement  by  the  Alans  ;  but  the  barbarians  did  not  know  how  to 
improve  their  success,  and,  after  a  short  delay,  he  arrived  safely  ia 
Asia.  The  Persians  were  defeated  in  .every  engagement ;  and  Sapor, 
forced  to  abandon  Mesopotamia,  was  pursued  to  the  very  gates  of 
Ctes'iphon.  But  these  victories  were  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
the  death  of  Misith''eus,who  showed  his  patriotism,  even  in  his  last 
moments,  by  bequeathing  all  his  estates  to  the  Roman  people.  Gordian, 
having  appointed  Philip,  the  Arabian,  his  prime  minister,  continued  the 
war  against  Sapor,  and  gave  the  Persians  a  decisive  overthrow  on  the 
banks  of  the  Chab'oras  {Khabur),  a  tributary  to  the  Euphrates,  in  Mes- 
opotamia. But  while  the  young  conqueror  was  pursuing  the  advantages 
of  his  victory,  a  mutiny  was  excited  in  his  army  by  the  traitor  Philip, 
whom  he  was  compelled  to  make  a  partner  of  his  empire.  Not  content 
with  this  elevation,  Philip  procured  the  assassination  of  his  youthful 
benefactor  (a.  d.  244) ;  but  the  soldiers  soon  repented  of  their  crime 
and  raised  a  splendid  mausoleum  to  the  memory  of  the  youthful  hero. 

Philip,  being  elevated  to  the  empire  by  the  army,  wrote  to  the  sen- 
ate, ascribing  the  death  of  Gordian  to  a  natural  disease  :  he  then  con- 
cluded a  hasty  peace  with  the  Persians,  and,  returning  to  Syria,  made 
all  speed  to  Rome.  Though  the  senate  and  people,  wannly  attached 
to  the  Gordian  family,  at  first  regarded  him  with  aversion,  he  soon  won 
their  aflections  by  his  mild  administration  and  obliging  behavior.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  secretly  a  Christian,  but  many  of  his  actions  show 
that  he  had  little  regard  for  any  religion ;  however,  he  was  a  decided 
enemy  to  persecution.  His  reign  was  rendered  remarkable  by  the 
celebration  of  secular  games  for  the  thousandth  anniversary  of  the 
foundation  of  the  city :  it  was  also  disturbed  by  several  insurrections, 
especially  in  Pannonia,  the  suppression  of  which  he  intrusted  to  Traja- 
nus  Decius.  Scarcely  had  this  general  reached  Illyr'icum,  when  his 
soldiers  compelled  him,  by  the  threat  of  instant  death,  to  assume  the 
imperial  purple.  Philip,  leaving  his  son  to  protect  Rome,  marched 
against  Decius,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Verona  (a.  d.  249) 
His  son  was  massacred  by  the  praetorian  guards. 

Decius  commenced  his  reign  by  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  perse- 
cutions that  ever  oppressed  the  church.  The  Christians  throughout 
the  empire  were  driven  from  their  habitations,  dragged  to  execution 
like  common  malefactors,  and  subjected  to  the  most  exquisite  tortures 


288  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

cruelty  itself  could  invent.  The  laws  of  nature  and  humanity  were 
violated,  friend  betrayed  friend,  brother  informed  against  brother,  chil- 
dren against  their  parents,  and  parents  against  their  children  ;  every 
one  thinking  it  meritorious  to  discover  a  Christian  and  procure  his 
death.  Decius  vented  his  rage  chiefly  against  the  bishops.  Among 
his  victims  were  Fabian,  bishop  of  Rome  ;  Bab'ylaz,  bishop  of  Anti- 
och ;  and  Alexander,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  Great  numbers  of  Chris- 
tians betook  themselves  to  mountains,  rocks,  and  deserts,  choosing 
rather  to  live  among  wild  beasts  than  with  men  w'lio  had  divested  them- 
selves of  reason  and  humanity.  Among  these  was  the  celebrated 
Paul,  Avho  withdrew  into  the  deserts  of  Egypt,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  lived  a  solitary  life  for  the  greater  part  of  a  century.  He  is  usu- 
ally regarded  as  the  father  and  founder  of  the  order  of  anchorets,  oi 
hermits,  whose  superstitious  austerities  appear  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  extraordinary  penances  practised  by  the  fanatics  of  central 
and  southern  Asia. 

This  persecution  was  interrupted  by  an  invasion  of  the  Goths,  who, 
for  the  hrst  time,  crossed  the  Danube  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
devastated  Moe'sia.  Decius  marched  against  them,  and  gained  some 
important  advantages  ;  but  in  his  last  battle,  charging  into  the  midst  of 
the  enemy  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  son,  he  was  overpowered  and 
slain  (a.  D.  251).  A  great  nnmber  of  the  Romans,  thus  deprived  of 
their  leader,  fell  victims  to  the  barbarians ;  the  survivors,  grateful  for 
the  protection  afforded  them  by  the  legions  of  Gallus,  who  commanded 
in  the  neighborhood,  proclaimed  that  general  emperor. 

Gallus  concluded  a  dishonorable  peace  with  the  Goths,  and  renewed 
the  persecutions  of  the  Christians.  His  dastardly  conduct  provoked 
general  resentment ;  the  provincial  armies  revolted,  but  the  most  dan 
gerous  insurrection  was  that  headed  by  iEmilianus,  who  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  Moe'sia.  He  led  his  forces  into  Italy,  and  the  hostile  armies 
met  at  Interamna  {Terni)  ;  but  just  as  an  engagement  was  about  to 
commence,  Gallus  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers  (a.  d.  253),  and 
iEmilianus  proclaimed  emperor.  In  three  months  iEmilianus  him- 
self met  a  similar  fate,  the  army  having  chosen  Valerian,  the  governor 
of  Gaul,  to  the  sovereignty. 

Valerian,  though  now  sixty  years  of  age,  possessed  powers  that 
might  have  revived  the  sinking  fortunes  of  the  empire,  which  was  now 
invaded  on  all  sides.  The  Goths,  who  had  formed  a  powerful  monar- 
chy on  the  lower  Danube  and  the  northern  coasts  of  the  Black  sea, 
extended  their  territories  to  the  Borys^thenes  (^Dnieper)  and  Tanais 
{Don)  :  they  ravaged  Moe'sia,  Thrace,  and  Macedon  ;  while  their  fleets, 
which  soon  became  formidable  after  the  capture  of  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nese (Crim  Tartary),  devastated  the  coasts  both  of  the  European  and 
Asiatic  provinces.  The  great  confederation  of  the  Franks  became  for- 
midable on  the  lower  Rhine,  and  not  less  dangerous  was  that  of  the 
AUemanni  on  the  upper  part  of  that  river.  The  Carpians  and  Sarma- 
tians  laid  Moe'sia  waste. 

The  Sarmatians  were  particularly  formidable  for  their  cavalry :  both 
horses  and  men  were  covered  with  a  curious  kind  of  scale  armor 
formed  of  the  sliced  hoofs  of  animals,  which  hung  sufficiently  loose  not 
to  impede  the  motions  of  the  warrior,  and  was  yet  strong  enough  to 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  289 

mm  aside  arrows  and  javelins.     The  light  cavalry  of  the  Persians  a 
the  same  time  devastated  the  greater  part  of  western  xA.sia,  extending 
their  ravages  even  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Gallienus,  the  emperor's  son,  whom  Valerian  had  chosen  for  his  col- 
league, and  Aurelian,  destined  to  succeed  him  in  the  empire,  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Germanic  tribes,  while  Valerian  marched  in 
person  against  the  Scythians  and  Persians,  who  had  invaded  Asia.  He 
gained  a  victory  over  the  former  in  Anatolia,  but,  imprudently  passing 
the  Euphrates,  he  w^as  surrounded  by  Sapor's  army  near  Edes'sa,  in  a 
situation  where  neither  courage  nor  military  skill  could  be  of  any  avail, 
and  was  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion  (a.  d.  259).  During  nine 
years  Valerian  languished  in  hopeless  captivuy,  the  object  of  scorn  and 
insult  to  his  brutal  conqueror,  while  no  effort  was  made  for  his  libera 
finn  by  his  unnatural  son. 

Section   VII. — From  the  Captivity  of  Valerian  to  the  Resignation  of 

Diodesian. 

FROM    A.  D.  260    TO    A.  D.  305. 

Gallie'nus  succeeded  to  the  throne,  receiving  the  news  of  his  fa- 
ther's misfortunes  with  secret  pleasure  and  open  indifference.  He 
seemed  to  be  versed  in  everything  but  the  art  of  goicnnuent ;  "  he  was 
master  of  several  curious  but  useless  sciences,  a  ready  orator  and  ele- 
gant poet,  a  skilful  gardener,  an  excellent  cook,  and  most  contemptible 
prince."*  At  the  moment  of  his  accession,  the  barbarians,  encouraged 
by  the  captivity  of  Valerian,  invaded  the  empire  on  all  sides.  Italy 
itself  was  invaded  by  the  Germans,  who  advanced  to  Raven'na  but 
they  were  forced  to  retire  by  the  emperor.  Gallienus,  after  this  exer- 
tion, sunk  into  complete  inactivity  :  his  indolence  roused  a  host  of  com- 
petitors for  the  empire  in  the  different  provinces,  commonly  called  "  the 
thirty  tyrants,"  though  the  number  of  pretenders  did  not  exceed  nine- 
teen. It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  the  various  struggles  for 
power  between  these  rivals,  which  distracted  every  part  of  the  empire 
Far  the  most  remarkable  of  them  was  Odenatus,  who  assumed  the  pur» 
pie  at  Palmy'ra,  gained  several  great  victories  over  the  Persians,  and 
besieged  Sapor  in  Ctes'iphon.  Though  he  failed  to  take  the  city,  ha 
checked  for  a  long  time  the  progress  of  the  Sassan'ides.  Gallienus, 
hearing  of  these  great  achievements,  resolved  to  convert  a  rival  into  a 
friend,  and  proclaimed  Odenatus  his  partner  in  the  empire.  But  this 
great  man  was  murdered  by  some  of  his  own  family  :  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  wife,  the  celebrated  Zenobia,  who  took  the  title  of  Queen  of  the 
East.  Gallienus  did  not  long  survive  him  :  he  was  murdered  while  be- 
sieging Aureolus,  one  of  his  rivals,  in  Mediolanum  [Milan) ;  but  before 
his  death  t.e  transmitted  his  rights  to  Claudius,  a  general  of  great  rep- 
utation (a.  D.  268).  Most  of  the  other  tyrants  had  previously  fallen  in 
battle  or  by  assassination. 

Mar'cus  Aurelius  Claudius,  having  conquered  his  only  rival,  Aureo- 
lus, marched  against  the  Germans  and  Goths,  whom  he  routed  with 
great  slaughter.     He  then  prepared  to  march  against  Zenobia,  who  had 

•  Gibbon. 
19 


290  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

conquered  Egypt ;  but  a  pestilence  broke  out  in  his  army,  and  'be  em- 
peror himself  was  one  of  its  victims  (a.  d.  270).  Extraordinary  hon- 
ors were  paid  to  his  memory  by  the  senate.  His  brother  was  elected 
emperor  by  acclamation  ;  but  in  seventeen  days  he  so  displeased  the 
army  by  attempting  to  revive  the  ancient  discipline,  that  he  was  deposed 
and  murdered. 

Aurelian,  a  native  of  Sir'mium,  in  Pannonia,  was  chosen  emperor  by 
the  army  ;  and  the  senate,  well  acquainted  Avith  his  merits,  joyfully 
confirmed  the  election.  He  made  peace  with  the  Goths,  and  led  his 
army  against  the  Germans,  who  had  once  more  invaded  Italy.  Aure- 
lian was  at  first  defeated;  but  he  soon  retrieved  his  loss,  and  c  it  the 
whole  of  the  barbarian  army  to  pieces.  His  next  victory  was  obtained 
over  the  Vandals,  a  new  horde  that  had  passed  the  Danube  ;  and  hav- 
ing thus  secured  the  tranquillity  of  Europe,  he  marched  to  rescue  die 
eastern  provinces  from  Zenobia. 

The  queen  of  Palmy'ra  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious  women  re- 
corded in  history  :  she  claimed  descent  from  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies, 
but  was  probably  of  Jewish  origin,  since  she  is  said  to  have  professed 
tlie  Jewish  religion.  She  was  well  acquainted  with  the  principal  lan- 
guages of  the  eastern  and  western  worlds,  skilled  in  the  leading  sci- 
ences of  her  day,  and  so  well  versed  in  affairs  of  state,  that  the  suc- 
cesses of  her  husband,  Odenatus,  are  generally  attributed  to  his  having 
acted  by  her  advice.  For  nearly  six  years  she  ruled  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia, discharging  all  the  duties  of  an  excellent  sovereign  and  intrepid 
commander.  Ambition,  however,  precipitated  her  ruin :  not  satisfied 
■with  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  she  aspired  at  the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  and 
Aurelian  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  usurpations  so  disgraceful  to  the 
Roman  fame. 

On  his  march  through  Thrace,  the  emperor  fought  a  great  battle  with 
the  Goths.  Not  satisfied  with  a  single  victory,  he  pursued  them  across 
the  Danube,  routed  their  forces  a  second  time,  and  slew  one  of  their 
kings.  Passing  over  into  Asia,  he  encountered  the  forces  of  Zenobia 
near  Antioch ;  the  battle  was  sanguinary  and  well  contested,  but  in  the 
end  the  Romans  prevailed.  A  second  victory  enabled  Aurelian  to  be- 
siege Palmy'ra,  which  the  dauntless  queen  defended  with  great  spirit 
and  resolution.  At  length,  finding  that  there  was  no  hope  of  succor, 
she  attempted  secretly  to  fly  into  Persia,  but  was  betrayed  by  her  ser- 
vants, and  taken  prisoner.  Palmy'ra  surrendered ;  but  the  citizens 
soon  revolting,  this  great  commercial  capital  was  stormed,  its  inhabitants 
put  to  the  sword,  and  its  trade  and  prosperity  irretrievably  ruined. 

Scarcely  had  this  revolt  been  subdued,  when  Aurelian  was  called 
upon  to  quell  a  formidable  insurrection  in  Egypt.  The  celerity  of  his 
march  disconcerted  the  rebels  ;  they  were  speedily  cont|aered  ;  and  the 
emperor,  having  thus  suppressed  all  the  troubles  of  the  east,  resolved  to 
lecover  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  which  had  now  fur  thirteen  years 
ieen  the  prey  of  different  tyrants.  A  single  campaign  restored  tliese 
provinces  to  the  empire  j  and  Aurelian,  returning  to  Rume,  was  honored 
with  the  most  magnificent  triumph  that  the  city  had  ever  beheld.  Far 
more  honorable  to  him,  however,  was  his  generous  tieatment  of  his  cap- 
Hvfs — a  suitable  estate  was  granted  at  Tibur  [Tivai)  to  Zenobia  and 
eei  children .     The  princess,  reconciling  herself  to  iier  lot,  became  a 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


291 


ispectable  Roman  matron  ;  and  her  family  was  not  extinct  in  the  fifth 

;entury. 

Tranquillity  was  first  disturbed  by  a  violent  insurrection  excited  at 
Rome  by  the  debasing  of  the  coinage.  The  imperial  troops,  sent  to 
drive  the  mob  from  the  CcElian  hill,  were  routed  with  the  loss  of  seven 
thousand  men,  and  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the  insurgents 
were  reduced.  Aurelian  punished  the  principal  authors  of  the  tumult 
with  great  severity,  not  to  say  cruelty,  and,  finding  that  he  had  thus  be- 
come unpopular,  left  the  city.  He  directed  his  course  to  Gaul,  where 
he  appeased  some  growing  disturbances  ;  thence  he  marched  to  Vinde- 
licia,  and  restored  it  to  the  empire  :  but  he  abandoned  the  province  of 
Dacia  to  the  barbarians,  withdrawing  all  the  Roman  garrisons  that  had 
been  stationed  beyond  the  Danube. 

Aurelian's  virtues  were  sullied  by  the  sternness  and  severity  that 
naturally  belongs  to  a  peasant  and  a  soldier.  His  officers  dreaded  hf.s 
inflexibility,  which  had  been  already  shown  in  his  sentencing  his  <  wn 
nephew  to  death.  While  he  was  thus  preparing  to  lead  his  army 
against  the  Persians,  he  discovered  an  act  of  peculation  committed  by 
Mnestheus,  one  of  his  secretaries,  and  threatened  a  severe  punishment. 
The  guilty  functionary,  having  no  other  hope  of  escape,  conspired  with 
several  others  exposed  to  legal  vengeance :  they  assailed  the  emperpr, 
escorted  only  by  a  few  friends,  on  his  road  to  Byzantium,  and  slew  him 
with  innumerable  wounds  (a.  d.  275).  But  the  assassins  did  not  escape 
the  punishment  due  to  their  crimes ;  the  soldiers,  attached  fondly  to  a,n 
emperor  who  had  so  often  led  them  to  victory,  tore  the  authors  of  his 
death  to  pieces.  They  showed,  at  the  same  time,  greater  respect  for 
the  law  than  had  ever  been  displayed  by  their  predecessors,  cheerfully 
referring  the  choice  of  an  emperor  to  the  senate. 

After  a  tranquil  interregnum  of  more  than  six  months,  the  senate  elect- 
ed Mar'cus  Claudius  Tacit'us,  a  member  of  their  own  body,  in  spite  of 
his  great  age,  for  he  was  already  passed  his  seventy-fifth  year.  Having 
enacted  some  useful  laws,  the  emperor  marched  against  the  A'lans,  who 
had  overrun  Asia  Minor.  He  defeated  the  barbarians  ;  but  the  fatigues 
of  the  campaign  proved  too  much  for  his  constitution,  and  he  died  in 
Cappadocia,  after  a  short  reign  of  about  seven  months. 

Florian  the  brother  of  Tacit'us,  was  elected  emperor  by  the  senate, 
bu-  Mar'cus  Aurelius  Probus  was  the  choice  of  the  Syrian  army ;  and 
a  civil  war  soon  began  between  these  rivals.  But  Florian's  own  soldiers 
took  offence  at  some  part  of  his  conduct,  rose  in  sudden  mutiny,  and  put 
him  to  death.  Probus,  now  undisputed  master  of  the  empire,  led  his 
troops  from  Asia  to  Gaul,  which  was  again  devastated  by  the  German 
tribes  ;  he  not  only  defeated  the  barbarians,  but  pursued  them  into  their 
own  coimtry,  where  he  gained  greater  advantages  than  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Thence  he  passed  into  Thrace,  where  he  humbled  the 
Goths ;  and  returning  to  Asia,  he  completely  subdued  the  insurgent 
Isaurians,  whose  lands  he  divided  among  his  veterans.  Alarmed  at 
these  victories,  Bahram  H.,  king  of  Persia,  called  Var'ames  by  the 
western  writers,  sent  ambassadors  to  solicit  peace,  and  submitted  to  the 
terms  dictated  by  the  emperor.  Three  competitors  in  different  provin- 
ces were  next  subdued ;  but  when  wars  were  at  an  end,  the  emperoi 
employed  his  armies  in  useful  public  works,  which  so  offended  the  licen 


292  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

tious  soldiery,  that  they  suddenly  attacked  and  slew  him  (ad.  282) 
They  subsequently  repented  of  the  crime,  and  united  to  raise  a  statelj 
monument  to  his  memory. 

Carus,  the  captain  of  the  praetorian  guards,  was  elected  emperor  by 
the  army ;  and  the  senate,  not  without  reluctance,  assented  to  the  ar- 
rangement. The  new  emperor  gave  the  title  of  Caesar  to  his  sons  Ca- 
riEus  and  Numerianus,  the  former  of  whom  was  one  of  the  most 
depraved  young  men  of  his  time;  the  latter  a  model  of  every  virtue. 
The  new  emperor  signalized  his  accession  by  a  brilliant  victory  ovei 
the  Sarmatians  :  he  would  have  pursued  these  barbarians  into  their  na- 
tive wilds,  had  he  not  been  summoned  to  Asia  by  a  new  invasion  of  the 
Persians.  Leaving  the  care  of  the  western  provinces  to  Carinus,  the 
emperor,  accompanied  by  Numerianus,  hastened  into  Mesopotamia, 
where  he  defeated  Bahram,  and,  pursuing  the  Persians  into  their  own 
country,  besieged  Ctes'iphon.  The  city  would  probably  have  been 
taken,  had  not  the  emperor  fallen  a  victim  to  disease,  or,  as  others  say, 
to  a  thunderbolt  (a.  d.  283).  Numerianus  was  chosen  his  successor; 
but,  after  a  few  months'  reig-n,  he  was  assassinated  by  A'per  his  father- 
in-law  and  captain  of  his  guards.  The  crime,  however,  was  discovered, 
and  the  murderer  put  to  death  by  the  army. 

Dioclesian,  said  to  have  been  originally  a  slave,  was  unanimously 
saluted  emperor,  by  the  army.  He  was  proclaimed  at  Chal'cedon  on 
the  17th  of  September,  a.  d.  284  ;  an  epoch  that  deserves  to  be  remem- 
bered, as  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  called  "  the  era  of  Dio- 
clesian," or  "  the  era  of  martyrs,"  which  long  prevailed  in  thfe  church, 
and  is  still  used  by  the  Copts,  the  Abyssinians,  and  other  African  na- 
tions. When  Carinus  heard  of  his  brother's  death,  he  assembled  a  nu- 
merous army,  marched  from  Gaul  into  Illyr'icum,  where  he  conquered 
a  usurper  named  Julianus,  and  thence  advancing  into  Moe'sia,  inflicted 
a  severe  defeat  on  the  army  of  Dioclesian,  in  the  plains  of  Mar'gus 
(Morava  Hissar).  But  in  the  very  moment  of  victory  a  tribune,  whose 
wife  he  had  seduced,  seized  the  opportunity  of  revenge,  and  by  a  single 
blow  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war. 

Dioclesian  made  a  generous  use  of  his  victory  :  in  an  age  when  death, 
exile,  and  confiscation,  were  the  usual  fate  of  the  conquered  pany,  the 
new  emperor  did  not  even  deprive  his  rival's  ministers  of  office.  The 
troubles  of  the  empire  appearing  too  great  to  be  managed  by  a  single 
mind,  Dioclesian  voluntarily  gave  himself  a  colleague,  selecting  for  this 
high  situation  his  friend  Maximian,  a  brave  and  skilful  soldier,  but  un- 
fortunately also  an  ignorant  and  ferocious  barbarian.  Scarcely  had  the 
appointment  been  made,  when  Maximian  was  called  upon  to  exert  his 
military  talents  in  Gaul,  both  in  suppressing  insurrections  and  checking 
the  barbarians.  He  effected  his  purposes  with  great  skill ;  while  his 
colleague  gained  several  victories  over  the  Sarmatians  in  the  east. 

A  brief  interval  of  tranquillity  was  followed  by  new  and  more  alarm- 
ing disturbances  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  two  sovereigns,  in 
great  alarm,  resolved  on  a  further  division  of  authority  ;  each  chose  an 
associate  and  successor,  with  the  title  of  Ca;sar,  who  was  to  be  invested 
with  a  considerable  share  of  imperial  power :  to  this  new  dignity  Dio- 
clesian nominated  Max'imin  Galerius  ;  and  Maximian,  Constan'tius 
Chlorus.     A  division  of  the  empire  followed :  Dioclesian  took  the  prov- 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


293 


inces  beyond  the  jEgean  sea ;  Thrace  and  Illyr'icum  were  assigned  to 
Galerius  ;  Maximian  received  Italy  and  Africa ;  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Brit- 
ain, were  intrusted  to  Constan'tius. 

Although  this  arrangement  app^^ars  to  have  been  rendered  necessary 
by  the  circumstances  of  the  empire,  it  undoubtedly  hastened  its  decline  : 
four  courts,  with  all  their  expensive  adjuncts,  were  now  to  be  maintain- 
ed, instead  of  one  :  taxes  were  multiplied  ;  the  inhabitants  of  several 
provinces  reduced  to  beggary,  and  agriculturists,  unable  to  meet  the 
imposts  levied  on  land  and  produce,  left  the  fields  in  many  districts  un- 
cultivated. Italy,  which  had  hitherto  borne  a  very  light  share  of  the 
public  burdens,  was  no  longer  permitted  to  claim  exemption  as  the  seat 
of  domestic  empire,  and  was  soon  reduced  to  a  deplorable  condition. 

Britain,  which  had  been  usurped  by  Carausius,  early  claimed  the  at- 
tention of  Constan'tius  :  it  was,  however,  necessary  to  prepare  a  fleet 
for  the  invasion,  as  the  usurper  was  powerful  by  sea ;  and  while  the 
naval  armament  was  preparing,  Constan'tius  gamed  several  victories 
over  the  German  hordes.  Just  as  he  was  about  to  set  sail,  he  learned 
that  Carusius  had  been  deposed  and  murdered  by  a  new  usurper,  named 
AUec'tus,  far  inferior  to  his  victim  in  talent  and  popularity.  The  Csesar 
instantly  hastened  to  cross  the  channel ;  AUec'tus  was  defeated  and  slain 
in  Kent,  the  remainder  of  the  province  quickly  reduced  to  obedience, 
and  the  ravages  of  the  barbarians  on  the  northern  frontiers  prevented. 
Galerius  was  as  successful  on  the  Danube  as  Constan'tius  in  Britain 
and  on  the  Rhine  ;  Maximian  reduced  the  barbarous  tribes  that  had  in- 
vaded Africa,  while  Dioclesian  quelled  a  dangerous  revolt  in  Egypt. 
He  was  soon  summoned  to  protect  the  empire  from  a  dangerous  inva- 
sion of  the  Persians  ;  Galerius  had  been  sent  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Euphrates  to  check  their  progress,  but  he  was  defeated  by  the  Sassa- 
nid  monarch  Narsi,  on  the  very  field  which  had  been  so  fatal  to  Cras'- 
sus  and  his  legions.  Dioclesian  showed  great  indignation  at  the  mis- 
conduct of  Galerius,  to  which  he  attributed  the  recent  calamity ;  but  at 
length  he  permitted  himself  to  be  mollified,  and  intrusted  the  Caesar 
with  a  new  army  for  a  second  campaign. 

In  the  following  vsar  the  Romans  again  invaded  Persia ;  but,  profit- 
ing by  recent  and  buier  experience,  the  leader  left  the  plains  of  Meso- 
potamia on  the  right,  and  led  his  forces  through  the  Armenian  mount- 
ains, which  were  more  favorable  for  the  operations  of  his  infantry,  in 
which  the  principal  strength  of  his  army  consisted.  Masking  his 
course  from  the  enemy,  Galerius  unexpectedly  rushed  down  from  the 
the  hills  on  the  Persian  lines :  the  surprise,  the  impetuosity  of  the  at- 
tack, and  the  desire  for  revenge  which  animated  the  Romans,  rendered 
their  onset  irresistible.  Narsi  was  severely  wounded,  but  escaped  by 
the  swiftness  of  his  horse,  leaving  his  entire  family,  his  magnificent 
tents,  and  his  sumptuous  camp-equipage,  as  a  prize  to  the  conquerors 
A  bag  of  embossed  leather  filled  with  pearls,  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
private  soldier :  unacquainted  with  the  value  of  his  prize,  he  flung  the 
pearls  away,  keeping  the  bag  as  something  that  might  be  useful.  Ga- 
lerius treated  his  royal  captives  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  gener 
osity  ;  his  conduct  produced  such  an  effect  on  Narsi's  heart,  that  he  so 
licited  peace.  The  great  province  of  Mesopotamia  {(^Juzirah)  was 
yielded  to  the  Romans,  together  with  five  districts  beyond  the  Tigris. 


294  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

including  the  greater  jjart  of  Carduchia  {Kurdistan),  a  country  more 
fruitful  in  soldiers  than  grain,  but  which,  from  its  strength  and  position, 
commands  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia.  These  districts  were  taken 
from  Tiridates,  king  of  Armenia,  the  ally  of  the  Romans  ;  but  he  waa 
indemnified,  at  the  expense  of  Persia,  by  the  fine  province  of  Atropa- 
tene  {Azerbijim).  When  the  Armenian  took  possession  of  this  country, 
he  made  its  chief  city,  Tauris  (^Tabriz),  the  metropolis  of  his  kingdom, 
and  greatly  improved  that  ancient  capital. 

But  these  triumphs  were  sullied  by  a  general  persecution  of  the 
Christians  (the  tenth  and  last),  which  Dioclesian  is  said  to  have  com- 
menced at  the  instigation  of  Galerius  (a.  d.  303).  It  lasted  ten  entire 
years,  and  exceeded  all  the  preceding  in  its  indiscriminate  massacres 
and  severities.  Such  multitudes  of  Christians  suffered  death,  in  all  the 
provinces  of  the  empire,  that  the  emperors  believed  that  they  had  ac- 
complished their  purpose,  and  completely  extirpated  Christianity. 
They  told  the  world  in  a  pompous  inscription,  that  they  had  extinguish- 
ed the  Christian  name  and  superstition,  and  everywhere  restored  the 
worship  of  the  gods  to  its  former  purity  and  lustre.  But  the  church 
triumphed  over  all  their  artifices  and  power ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  ut- 
most efforts  of  tyranny,  many  years  had  not  elapsed  after  the  publica- 
tion of  this  boast,  when  it  reigned  triumphant  in  the  very  metropolis  of 
idolatry  and  superstition. 

Dioclesian  prepared  to  return  to  Rome,  but  was  delayed  for  some 
time  by  a  strange  revolt  in  Syria.  Eugenius,  an  oflicer  of  little  or  no 
reputation,  had  been  intrusted  with  the  command  of  five  hundred  men 
in  Seleucia,  who,  being  employed  all  day  in  cleansing  the  harbor,  and 
compelled  to  work  all  night  baking  their  own  bread,  resolved  to  de- 
liver themselves  from  such  insupportable  drudgery ;  and  forthwith  pro- 
claimed their  governor  emperor.  Eugenius  at  first  refused  the  dignity  ; 
but  being  threatened  with  instant  death,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  in- 
vested with  the  purple,  and  by  a  rapid  march,  got  possession  of  Anti- 
och.  When  the  citizens,  however,  recovered  from  their  surprise,  they 
fell  upon  the  insurgents,  and  cut  them  to  pieces.  Dioclesian,  instead 
of  rewarding  the  people  of  Antioch  for  their  fidelity,  ordered  their  chief 
magistrates  to  be  put  to  death  without  inquiry  or  trial ;  a  crime  which 
rende  ed  him  so  odious  to  the  Syrians,  that  for  more  than  ninety  years 
they  could  noi  hear  his  name  pronounced  without  a  shudder. 

Rome,  on  the  return  of  the  two  emperors,  witnessed  for  the  last  time, 
the  splendid  ceremonial  of  a  triumph  ;  it  was  less  costly  than  those  of 
Aurelian  and  Probus,  but  it  commemorated  greater  and  more  useful  vic- 
tories. In  his  triumph,  and  in  the  spectacles  that  followed  it,  however, 
Dioclesian  having  displayed  more  parsimony  than  was  pleasing  to  the 
people,  he  was  assailed  by  jests  and  lampoons,  which  annoyed  him  so 
much,  that  he  quitted  the  city  for  Raven'na.  On  his  journey  a  severe 
storm  arose,  and  the  cold  which  he  caught  produced  a  long  and  linger- 
ing disease  that  affected  his  reason.  After  he  had  begun  to  recover,  he 
was  induced,  or  perhaps  compelled,  to  resign  the  empire,  by  Galerius 
(a.  d.  305).  He  persuaded  Maximian  to  abdicate  also.  The  two 
Ccesars  became  emperors,  and  chose  two  other  nobles  to  fill  the  station 
diey  had  occupied. 

Dioclesian  survived  his   abdication  nearly  nine  years ;  ho  resided 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  295 

during  this  lime  at  his  country-seat  near  Salona  [Spalatro),  where  the 
ruins  of  his  palace  may  still  be  seen.  He  never  regretted  the  powet 
he  had  resigned  ;  and  when  Maximian  and  others  wrote,  inviting  him 
to  make  a  struggle  for  empire,  he  replied :  "  I  wish  you  would  come  to 
Salona,  and  see  the  cabbages  I  have  planted :  after  having  once  visited 
my  garden,  you  would  never  again  mention  to  me  the  name  of  empire." 
The  close  of  his  life  was  embittered  by  domestic  misfortune,  by  the  in- 
gratitude of  Constantino  and  Licin'ius,  and  by  the  calamities  which  he 
foresaw  that  the  dissensions  of  these  rivals  would  bring  upon  the  em- 
pire. There  are  various  accounts  given  of  the  manner  of  his  death,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  discover  whether  he  fell  by  his  own  hand  or  by 
natural  disease. 

Section  VIII. — From  the  Abdication  of  Dioclesian  to  the  Death  of  Constan- 

tine  the  Great. 

FROM  A.  D.  303  TO  A.  D.  337. 

The  Caesars,  Severus  and  Max'imin,  owed  their  elevation  to  Gale- 
rius  ;  but  they  were  not  quite  so  subservient  to  his  wishes  as  he  ex- 
pected, both  showing  themselves  favorable  to  the  toleration  of  the 
Christians.  Arrangements  were  made  for  the  division  of  the  empire ; 
Constan'tius  and  Severus  received  the  western  provinces  ;  Galerius  and 
Max'imin  ruled  all  the  territories  east  of  the  Adriatic.  Constantine,  the 
celebrated  son  of  Constan'tius,  was  sick  in  the  provinces  assigned  to 
Galerius  when  the  empire  was  thus  divided ;  some  efTorts  were  made 
to  assassinate  a  prince  whose  talents  and  popularity  had  already  ren- 
dered him  formidable.  He  escaped  the  danger  by  a  rapid  flight,  and 
came  to  his  father,  who  was  just  about  to  embark  at  Gessoriacura 
{Boulogne)  for  Britain.  The  presence  of  Constan''tius  was  required  in 
that  island  by  a  formidable  invasion  of  the  Picts,  a  nation  now  for  the 
first  time  mentioned  in  history ;  but  while  on  his  march  against  these 
barbarians,  he  was  seized  with  a  mortal  disease,  and  died  at  Ebor'acum 
{York),  where  his  body  was  honorably  interred  by  his  son  Constantine 
(a.  d.  306). 

Constantine  was  instantly  proclaimed  Augustus  by  the  soldiers  ;  but 
Galerius  would  only  give  him  the  title  of  Caesar,  declaring  that  Severus 
was  his  partner  in  the  empir  •,  Maxen'tius,  the  son  of  Maximian,  in- 
dignant at  his  exclusion  from  power,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  dissatisfied  soldiery,  and  induced  his  father  to  abandon 
his  solitude,  and  remount  the  throne.  Severus  led  an  army  against 
them ;  but  he  was  abandoned  by  the  greater  part  of  his  troops,  taken 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death  (a.  d.  307).  Maximian,  knowing  that  Ga- 
lerius would  revenge  the  murder  of  Severus,  strengthened  himself  by 
entering  into  close  alliance  with  Constantine,  to  whom  he  gave  his 
daughter  Fausta  in  marriage.  Nor  did  he  dread  Galerius  without  a 
cause  :  that  emperor  hastened  from  the  east  with  a  large  army,  and 
attempted  to  besiege  Rome  ;  but  failing  in  this  enterprise,  he  permitted 
his  soldiers  to  devastate  Italy.  Maximian  had  gone  to  Gaul,  hoping  to 
receive  aid  from  Constantine ;  but  finding  that  prudent  prince  by  no 
means  disposed  to  encounter  the  hazards  of  a  dangerous  war,  and  hear- 
ing that  Galerius  had  retreated  precipitately,  hr;  returned  to  Ronrte, 


296 


ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


where  he  leigned  conjointly  with  his  son.  In  the  meantime,  Galgriua 
conferred  the  title  of  emperor  on  his  friend  Licinius  ;  and  thus  the, em- 
pire was  shared  between  six  sovereigns.* 

Maximian  having  quarrelled  with  his  son,  returned  to  Gaul,  where  he 
began  to  plot  against  the  life  of  Constantine  ;  but  his  treachery  was 
discovered,  and  he  was  deservedly  executed  (a.  d.  310).  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  loathsome  disease,  produced  by  debauchery,  removed 
Galerius  from  the  stage  ;  his  dominions  were  divided  between  Maximin 
and  Licinius.  It  was  scarcely  possible  that  pe:.ce  could  long  continue 
between  the  four  princes  who  now  shared  the  empire.  Constantine 
had  won  the  affections  of  his  subjects  by  his  wise  and  beneficent  adr 
ministration  in  Gaul,  while  the  cruelty  and  rapacity  of  Maxen'tius  filled 
Italy  and  Africa  with  confusion.  But  the  tyrant  was  not  conscious  of 
the  weakness  that  resulted  from  his  crimes.  Under  pretence  of  re- 
venging the  death  of  his  father,  he  ordered  all  the  statues  erected  in 
honor  of  Constantine  throughout  Italy  to  be  thrown  down,  and  thus  pro- 
voked a  war  with  the  most  able  prince  of  the  age.  Constantine  having 
passed  the  Alps,  defeated  the  lieutenants  of  Maxen'tius  at  Augusta  Tau- 
rinorum  ( Turin)  and  Vero'na,  while  the  tyrant  himself  remained  sunk  in 
sloth  and  luxury  at  Rome.  At  length  he  was  roused  from  his  lethargy 
by  the  rapid  approach  of  the  victorious  army ;  a  dreadful  battle  was 
fought  at  a  place  called  Sax'a  Rubra,  within  nine  miles  of  Rome,  near 
the  little  river  Cremera,  so  memorable  for  the  destruction  of  the  Fabii. 
The  result  was  fatal  to  Maxen'tius  ;  the  pra;torian  guards,  on  whom  he 
chiefly  relied,  were  broken  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  repeated  charges 
of  the  Gallic  horse.  The  tyrant  himself  was  drowned  in  the  Tiber, 
while  attempting  to  make  his  escape  through  the  crowd  over  the  Milvian 
bridge  (a.  d.  312).  It  was  during  this  campaign  that  Constantine  is 
said  to  have  seen  a  miraculous  vision  of  a  luminous  cross  in  the  heavens, 
a  little  before  sunset ;  and  to  have  been  warned  in  a  dream  to  take  this 
sacred  symbol  as  his  standard.  The  principal  evidence  for  the  truth 
of  this  miracle  is  the  emperor's  own  account  of  the  event,  related  many 
years  afterward  to  Eusebius ;  one  circumstance,  however,  greatly 
weakens  his  testimony ;  the  vision  was  so  far  from  producing  the  con- 
version of  Constantine,  that  he  did  not  receive  baptism  until  a  short 
time  before  his  death. 

No  sooner  had  the  death  of  Maxen'tius  made  Constantine  master  of 
Rome,  than  he  removed  the  great  source  of  all  the  calamities  that  had 
befallen  the  city  under  the  empire,  by  disbanding  the  praetorian  guards 
and  destroying  their  fortified  camp.  He  restored  the  authority  of  the 
senate  and  magistrates,  recalled  all  those  who  had  been  banished  by 
Maxen'tius,  and  dismissed  the  entire  tribe  of  spies  and  informers.  He 
revoked  all  the  edicts  that  had  been  issued  against  the  Christians  and 
paid  great  re^oect  to  the  bishops  and  clerg}',  either  on  account  of  the 
miraculous  vision  already  mentioned,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  through 
gratitude  for  the  efficient  aid  he  had  received  from  the  Christians  in  the 
recent  contest,  and  anxiety  to  secure  their  assistance  in  any  future 
struggle. 

Maximin  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  paganism ;  he  viewed  the  in- 
OOTations  of  Constantine  with  great  hostility  ;  and  when  Licinius  mar 
•  Maximiaiij  Galeriu5,  Licinius,  Maximiiij  Constantine,  and  Maxentius. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


291 


fied  the  sister  of  that  prince,  he  resolved  to  destroy  both.  Taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  war  in  which  Constantino  was  involved  with  the  Franks, 
ne  marched  against  Licin'ius,  hoping  to  destroy  him  before  any  as- 
sistance could  arrive  from  the  west.  His  first  efforts  were  crowned 
with  success ;  but  being  totally  defeated  near  Adrianople,  he  fled  with- 
out attendants  to  Nicomedia,  where  he  soon  died  of  rage  and  disap- 
pointment (a.  d.  313).  Licin'ius  made  a  cruel  use  of  his  victory, 
slaughtering  without  mercy  all  whom  he  ieemed  likely  to  become  com- 
petitors for  empire :  among  the  most  illustrious  of  his  victims  were  the 
wife  and  daughter  of  Dioclesian. 

Constantine,  during  this  war  was  engaged  in  securing  the  tranquil- 
lity of  western  Europe  ;  he  gcw^e  an  unquestionable  proof  of  his  attach- 
ment to  Christianity  by  convening  a  general  council  of  the  bishops  at 
Arebite  {Aries),  to  suppress  the  heresy  of  the  Donatists  ;  but  before  the 
asseiribly  met,  he  was  forced  to  take  the  field  against  Licin'ius,  who  had 
thrown  down  his  statues  in  iEnona  {Laybach),  a  city  of  upper  Pan- 
nonia.  With  his  usual  celerity,  Constanthie  hastened  into  Panncnia 
before  Licin'ius  could  expect  his  arrival ;  but  he  found  that  prince  al- 
ready in  the  field.  A  fierce  battle  was  fought  at  the  little  town  of 
Cib'alis  or  Ceb'alaj  {Sevilei),  not  far  from  Sir'mium,  in  which  Licin'ius 
was  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly  into  Thrace.  Thither  he  was  followed 
by  Constantine,  vanquished  a  second  time,  and  forced  to  consent  to 
an  accommodation,  by  which  Illyr'icum,  Macedon,  Greece,  and  lower 
Moe'sia,  were  yielded  to  Constantine  (a.  d.  314).  The  conqueror  im- 
mediately took  the  most  prudent  measures  to  secure  his  new  acquisi- 
tions ;  while  Licin^ius  continued  to  provoke  his  subjects  by  repeated 
cruelties  and  exactions. 

Foreign  invasions  led  to  a  renewal  of  the  civil  war.  Constantine 
having  conquered  the  Sarmatians  and  Goths,  pursued  the  latter  into  ter- 
ritories of  Licin'ius,  and  that  prince  immediately  declared  that  the 
recent  articles  of  peace  had  been  violated  (a.  d.  322).  Great  prepara- 
tions were  made  on  both  sides  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  but  Con- 
stantine was  the  first  to  take  the  field,  and  entering  Thrace  he  found 
his  rival  encamped  on  the  Hebrus  {Marilza),  not  far  from  Adrianople. 
The  battle  was  in  some  measure  a  struggle  between  Christianity  and 
paganism :  Constantine  displayed  the  banner  of  the  cross,  Licin'ius 
the  ancient  idolatrous  standards  of  the  empire :  the  struggle  was 
fierce — it  ended  in  the  total  overthrow  of  Licin'ius,  who  had  the  further 
mortification  of  learning  that  his  fleet  had  been  destroyed  in  the  straits 
of  Callip'olis  (GaUipoU)  by  Crispus,  the  eldest  son  of  Constantine 
An  attempt  was  made  to  terminate  the  struggle  by  negotiation,  but  it 
was  frustrated  by  the  insincerity  of  Licin'ius :  he  hazarded  a  second 
engagement,  and  was  irretrievably  ruined.  From  the  field  of  battle  the 
defeated  tyrant  fled  to  Nicodemia,  but  he  was  soon  taken  prisoner,  and 
put  to  death  (a.  d.  324).  Constantine  being  thus  sole  master  of  the 
empire,  restored  the  churches,  of  which  the  Christians  had  been  de- 
prived in  the  eastern  provinces,  to  their  respective  pastors,  and  issued 
several  edicts  for  the  suppression  of  idolatry. 

New  controversies  in  the  church  led  to  the  convocation  of  the  cele- 
brated council  of  Nice,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  fixed 
and  defined,  the  heresy  of  Arius  condemned,  and  the  spiritual  suprem- 


^98  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

acy  of  the  emperor  Tirtuall}'-  acknowledged  (a.  d.  325).  When  the 
laoor.s  of  this  celebrated  assembly  terminated,  Constaiitine  returned  to 
the  western  provmces,  and  paid  a  visit  to  Rome.  His  reception  in  the 
city  was  anything  but  flattering ;  the  populace  /oaded  him  with  insults 
and  execrations  for  abandoning  the  religion  of  his  forefathers  ;  and  his 
rage  at  such  injurious  treatment  is  said  to  have  greatly  influenced  his 
determination  of  transferring  the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  By- 
zantium. At  the  same  time  he  was  harassed  by  domestic  troubles, 
which  led  him  to  commit  a  horrid  crime.  Instigated  by  the  empress 
Fausta,  he  put  his  eldest  son,  the  virtuous  Crispus,  to  death  Avithout  a 
trial ;  and  when  he  too  late  discovered  his  error,  he  caused  Fausta 
and  her  accomplices  to  be  slain.  These  horrors  aggTavated  his  unpop- 
ularity among  the  Romans  ;  but  he  no  longer  regarded  their  displeas- 
ure, having  Anally  resolved  to  give  a  new  capital  to  the  empire  (a.  d. 
330). 

Anger  and  caprice  were  not  the  only  causes  that  induced  Constan- 
tine  to  make  such  an  important  change  ;  indeed,  the  removal  of  the 
seat  of  government  was  justified  by  considerations  of  the  soundest 
policy.  The  eastern  provinces  were  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  a  pow- 
erful dynasty,  the  Persian  Sassan'ides,  who  openly  aspired  to  the  an- 
cient empire  of  Cy'rus ;  the  frontier  of  the  Danube  was  not  sufiicient 
to  restrain  the  Goths  and  Sarmatians ;  the  emperors  would  therefore 
have  endangered  the  most  faithful  and  wealthy  portions  of  their  domin- 
ions, had  they  continued  to  reside  in  western  Europe.  A  metropolis 
on  the  confines  of  Europe  and  Asia  was  at  once  recommended,  by  the 
political  advantages  of  its  central  situation,  and  the  opportunities  it  af- 
forded for  reviving  the  lucrative  commerce  of  the  Euxine  and  the  east- 
ern Mediterranean.  A  slight  glance  at  the  natural  advantages  of  By- 
zantium, will  show  that  it  was  worthy  of  being  made  the  metropolis  of 
an  empire  by  the  wise  sovereign  whose  name  it  bears. 

The  area  of  Constantinople  is  an  irregular  triangle,  whose  apex,  an 
obtuse  point  advancing  to  the  east  and  toward  the  Asiatic  coast,  meets 
and  repels  the  waters  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus.  On  the  north  is  a 
winding  harbor,  known  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  by  the  name 
of  Chryso-Keras,  or  the  Golden  Horn :  it  is  about  seven  miles  in 
length,  with  good  anchorage  through  the  greater  part  of  its  extent :  the 
entrance  is  not  more  than  five  hundred  yards  wide,  and  may  be  easily 
defended  against  a  hostile  armament.  On  the  southeastern  side  the 
walls  of  the  city  are  washed  by  the  Propon'tis  {sea  of  Marmora),  and 
the  west  forms  the  base  of  the  triangle  which  is  connected  with  the 
continent.  Thus  situated,  the  Euxine  sea  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
^Egean  on  the  other,  could  supply  it  with  the  richest  productions  of 
Europe  and  Asia ;  while  its  shape  rendered  it  easily  defensible  againsi 
the  savage  and  plundering  tribes  of  Thrace. 

Enormous  sums  were  expended  by  Constantine  in  embellishing  his 
new  capital ;  unfortunately,  there  was  equal  prodigality  in  the  other 
branches  of  the  administration,  and  the  emperor's  rule  became  grinding 
and  severe.  But  he  did  not  abandon  his  warlike  character ;  he  se- 
verely chastised  the  Goths  and  Sarmatians,  who  invaded  Thrace,  and 
compelled  them  to  give  hostages  for  their  future  good  conduct.  In  the 
decline  of  his  life,  he  appears  to  have  adopted  much  of  the  pomp  and 


ROilAN  EMPIRE. 


299 


luxury  characteristic  of  Asiatic  despots ;  but  when  increasing  disoaso 
warned  him  of  approaching  dissolution,  he  received  the  sacrament  of 
baptism,  and  expired  ten  months  afterward,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  his 
reign  (a.  d.  335).     He  left  three  sons  to  inherit  his  cmpiie. 

The  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  consummated  the  revolution 
in  the  Roman  constitution  which  had  been  commenced  in  the  reign  of 
Dioclesian ;  it  became  a  simple  despotism,  with  more  of  a  political 
than  military  character.  An  entire  change  was  made  in  the  form  of 
administration ;  the  magistrates  being  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
iHuslrLssimi,  the  speclab'iles,  and  the  clarissimi  (illustrious,  respeclal)le, 
and  honorable). 

The  magistrates  of  the  first  class  were,  the  consuls  and  patricians, 
the  prsstorian  and  metropolitan  praefects,  the  masters-general  of  cavalry 
and  infantry,  and  the  seven  great  officers  of  the  household.  The  titles 
of  consul  and  patrician  were  merely  honorary.  They  were  conferred 
by  the  emperor  at  his  pleasure,  and  in  both  cases  the  distinctions  were 
personal,  not  hereditary.  The  power  of  the  praetorian  praefects  ranked 
next  to  that  of  the  emperors.  The  Roman  dominions  were  divided 
into  four  great  prfcfectures,  and  these  again  were  subdivided  into  dio- 
ceses and  provinces.  The  prefectures  were  named,  those  of  the  East, 
lUyr'icura,  Italy,  and  Gaul.  To  the  prjctorian  pr;cfects  was  assigned 
the  civil  government  of  these  several  divisions  ;  but  Constantino  had 
taken  care  that  such  ])ower  should  not  be  rendered  too  dangerous  by 
being  united  with  military  command.  To  their  charge  were  intrusted 
the  coinage,  the  highways,  the  ports,  the  granaries,  the  manufactures, 
and  everything  that  could  interest  the  public  prosperity  of  their  respect- 
ive districts.  They  were  empowered  to  explain,  enforce,  and  in  some 
cases  modify,  the  imperial  edicts.  They  could  remove  or  punish  the 
provincial  governors ;  an  appeal  lay  to  their  tribunal  from  all  inferior 
jurisdictions  ;  and  the  sentence  of  the  prajfect  was  final. 

Rome  and  Constantinople  had  prajfects  of  their  own.  The  superior 
dignity  of  their  tribunals  caused  those  of  the  praetors  to  be  deserted, 
and  the  most  ancient  title  of  Roman  magistracy  soon  fell  into  desue- 
tude. The  peace  of  both  capitals  was  preserved  by  a  vigilant  police  ; 
and  so  numerous  were  the  statues  with  which  they  were  adorned,  that 
a  magistrate  was  specially  appointed  to  preserve  theiu  from  injury. 

The  great  officers  of  the  state  and  court  were,  1.  The  prcepositus 
sancli  ciibiculi  (lord  chamberlain),  whose  duty  it  was  "  to  attend  the 
emperor  Iv  his  hours  of  state  or  amusement,  ai  d  to  perform  about  lais 
person  all  those  menial  offices  which  can  onl_,'  derive  their  splendor 
from  the  influence  of  royalty."  Under  him  were  all  the  comites  palatii 
(lords  of  the  palace),  and  cuhiculani  (chamberlains),  many  of  whom,  at 
a  later  age,  were  eunuchs  of  great  influence.  2.  The  magister  officio- 
rurn  (minister  for  the  home  department) :  to  him  was  intrusted  the  man- 
agement of  all  correspondence  between  the  princ  j  and  his  subjects, 
memorials,  petitions,  letters,  and  their  answers.  Ho  was  also  inspector- 
general  of  the  civil  and  military  schools,  and  appeals  lay  to  his  tribunal 
from  every  part  of  the  empire,  in  cases  where  the  privileges  of  the 
imperial  officers  were  concerned.  3.  The  comes  sacrarum  largitiunum 
(lord  high  treasurer),  was  the  chief  minister  of  finance  :  his  duties 
were  not  confined  to  the  charge  of  the  exchequer  and  superintendence 


300  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  tax-gatherers :  he  had  also  the  charge  over  manufactures  and  com 
merce,  which  Constantine,  with  more  wisdom  than  most  of  his  prede- 
cessors, brought  under  the  especial  care  of  the  state.  4.  The  quastor 
(principal  secretary  of  state)  was  the  representative  of  the  emperor's 
legislative  power,  and  the  original  source  of  civil  jurisprudence  ;  some 
of  his  functions  appear  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  British  lord 
chancellor.  5.  The  comes  rei  principis  (keeper  of  the  privy  purse) 
had  the  charge  of  the  imperial  private  estates,  which  were  scattered 
through  the  provinces,  from  Mauritania  to  Britain.  6  and  7.  The  cotn- 
ites  domesticorum  (commanders  of  the  household  guards)  presided  ovei 
the  seven  scholcB  (troops  or  squadrons)  of  cavalry  and  infantry  that 
guarded  the  emperor's  person. 

The  commander?  of  the  army  were  the  magistri  equUtim  (generals  of 
cavalry),  magistri  pedilum  (generals  of  infantry),  and  the  magistri  utri- 
usque  militia;  (commander-in-chief) ;  those  who  commanded  under  them 
were  called  duces  and  comites  (dukes  and  counts)  ;  ihey  were  distin- 
guished by  wearing  a  golden  belt,  and  received,  in  addition  to  their  pay, 
a  liberal  allowance,  sufficient  to  maintain  one  himdred  and  ninety  ser- 
vants, and  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  horses.  Constantine  changed 
the  entire  constitution  of  the  legions,  diminishing  their  number  to  less 
than  one  fourth :  to  secure  a  regular  supply  of  young  soldiers,  he  made 
it  one  of  his  conditions,  in  assigning  lands  to  the  veterans,  that  their 
sons  should  be  trained  to  the  profession  of  arms.  But  the  necessity  for 
such  a  stipulation  is  not  the  only  proof  we  have  of  the  decay  of  military 
spirit.  Such  was  the  dislike  the  degenerate  Romans  entertained  for  a 
soldier's  life,  that  many  young  men  in  Italy  mutilated  the  lingers  of 
their  right  hand  to  avoid  being  pressed  into  the  service.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  reluctance,  the  custom  of  employing  the  barbarians  as 
soldiers  became  every  day  more  frequent  and  more  fatal.  They  were 
not  only  enlisted  in  the  ranks,  but  many  of  them  were  raised  to  the 
highest  dignities  of  the  state. 

These  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  civil  and  military  aiminis 
tration  of  the  empire  rendered  the  government  more  costly,  and  requireo 
an  entirely  new  system  of  taxation  for  their  support.  It  is  one  of  the 
iew  advantages  of  an  arbitrary  government,  that  it  is  not  tempted  to  de- 
lude its  subjects  by  the  onerous  and  expensive  machinery  of  indirect 
taxation  through  the  excise  and  customs,  where  an  apparent  choice  is 
left  to  the  purchaser,  and  his  payment  of  the  tax,  by  buying  the  taxed 
article,  seems  to  be  voluntary.  A  despot  may  venture  on  direct  taxa- 
tion of  property  or  person ;  and,  though  this  is  apparently  more  harsh, 
it  is  in  reality  more  favorable  to  the  subject.  The  first  of  the  new 
taxes  was  the  indiction,  an  annual  land-tax,  levied  proportionately  to  the 
fertility  of  the  estates  possessed  by  landed  proprietors  ;  and  a  general 
census,  or  survey  of  property,  was  made  throughout  the  empire  every 
fifteen  years,  to  regulate  this  assessment.  Hence  the  name  of  indiction 
is  given  indifferently  to  the  tax  and  to  the  cycle  of  registration.  Trade 
and  commerce  were  subjected  to  an  impost  called  the  aurum  lustrale, 
which  was  collected  every  fourth  year.  "  The  honorable  merchant  of 
Alexandria,  who  imported  the  gems  and  spices  of  India  for  the  western 
world  ;  the  usurer  who  derived  from  the  interest  of  money  a  silent  and 
Ignominious  profit ;  the  ingenious  manufacturer,  the  diligent  mechanic, 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


30- 


and  even  the  inos'.  obscure  retailer  of  a  sequestered  village,  were  obliged 
to  admit  the  officer'*  of  the  revenue  into  the  partnership  of  their  gain  ; 
and  the  sovereign  of  the  Roman  empire,  who  tolerated  the  profession, 
consented  to  share  the  infamous  gain  of  prostitutes."*  The  last  impo 
sition  that  need  be  noticed  was  originally  a  free  gift,  called  awnmi  coro- 
narium,  being  a  compensation  for  the  crown  of  gold  presented  by  the 
allies  of  the  Romans  to  generals  who  had  been  the  authors  of  their  de- 
liverance, or  who  had  conferred  upon  them  any  remarkable  favor.  This 
spontaneous  offering  was  at  length  exacted  as  a  debt,  whenevei  the 
emperor  announced  any  remarkable  event  which  might  give  him  a  real 
or  apparent  claim  to  the  benevolence  of  his  subjects,  such  as  his  ac- 
cession, the  birth  of  a  son,  or  a  victory  over  the  barbarians.  To  these 
must  be  added,  the  municipal  expenses,  which  fell  almost  wholly  on  the 
civic  officers.  Instead  of  having  a  system  of  local  taxation,  the  rich- 
est citizens  were  obliged  to  take  in  turn  the  duty  of  providing  for  the 
administrative  wants  of  the  towns  in  which  they  resided  ;  but  our  in- 
formation respecting  the  practical  operation  of  this  plan  is  too  limited 
for  us  to  pronounce  any  opinion  upon  its  efficiency. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  evil  alone  resulted  from  these  changes ; 
on  the  contrary,  under  the  circumstances  of  the  empire,  Constantine's 
innovations  were  for  the  most  part  useful  reforms.  The  great  curse  of 
the  Romans  during  several  centuries  had  been  military  despotism ;  bu* 
the  license  of  the  turbulent  soldiery  was  checked  and  restrained  bj 
'=  the  pride,  pomp,  and  circumstance,"  with  which  the  civil  administraf 
don  was  surrounded.  The  despotism  of  a  court  was  put  in  place  of 
the  despotism  of  a  camp,  and  it  needs  not  to  be  told,  how  vast  was  th< 
improvement  that  must  have  resulted  from  such  an  alteration. 

Under  Constantine,  Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of 
the  empire.  He  found  the  constitution  of  the  church  already  organized 
— its  form  of  government  firmly  established.  Even  in  the  reign  of  Dio- 
clesian  the  bishops  held  an  honorable  rank  in  their  respective  provinces, 
and  were  treated  with  proper  respect,  as  men  of  high  and  sacred  sta- 
tion, not  only  by  the  people,  but  the  magistrates  themselves.  Constan- 
tine saw  clearly  the  advantages  that  would  result  to  the  extent  and  sta- 
bility of  his  power  by  cementing  the  union  between  the  church  and  the 
state  ;  he  therefore  appropriated  a  great  portion  of  the  revenue  of  cities 
to  the  endowment  of  churches  and  the  support  of  the  clergy.  Thus 
religion  came  to  the  aid  of  police  in  checking  turbulence,  and,  but 
for  the  crimes  and  follies  of  the  rulers,  the  Roman  empire  might  have 
enjoyed  a  long  course  of  prosperity  under  the  constitution  of  Constan- 
tine. 


Section  IX..-~~From  the  Death  of  Constantine  to  the  Reunion  of  the  Empire 

under  Theodosius  the  Great. 

FROM  A.  D.  337  TO  A.  D.  394. 

Constantine  bequeathed  portions  of  his  dominions  to  his  nephews 
Dalmatius  and  Hannibilianus ;  but  no  notice  was  taken  of  their  claims 
by  the  army  or  the  Roman  senate,  the  late  emperor's  three  sons  being 

•  Gibbon. 


302  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

proclaimed  unanimously  heirs  of  his  dominions.  There  princes  had 
been  educated  with  the  greatest  care  ;  the  most  pious  of  the  Christian 
teachers,  the  most  celebrated  professors  of  Grecian  philosophy  and  Ro- 
man jurisprudence,  were  engaged  to  superintend  their  instruction ;  but 
the  youths,  Constantine,  Constan'tius,  and  Constans,  resembled  their 
mother  Fausta  more  than  their  illustrious  father,  and  were  as  similar  in 
depravity  of  disposition  as  they  were  in  name.  Some  portion  of  their 
faults,  must,  however,  be  attributed  to  paternal  weakness.  Ere  they 
had  emerged  from  boyhood  they  were  successively  invested  with  the 
title  of  Caesar  and  invited  to  share  in  the  administration.  Such  inju- 
dicious indulgence  necessarily  surrounded  them  with  a  crowd  of  flatter- 
ers, ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  warm  passions  and  confiding  dispo- 
sitions of  youth  :  they  were  summoned  too  early  from  their  studies,  and 
were  permitted  to  exchange  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  for  the  enjoyment 
of  luxury,  and  the  expectation  of  a  throne. 

Constan'tius  was  the  nearest  of  the  brothers  to  the  capital  when  their 
father  died ;  he  hastened  to  take  possession  of  the  palace,  and,  to  re- 
move the  apprehensions  of  his  kinsmen,  who  justly  suspected  his 
jealous  temper,  he  took  a  solemn  oath  to  protect  them  from  all  danger. 
In  a  very  few  days  a  forged  scroll  was  placed  in  his  hands  by  the  bishop 
of  Nicomedia,  purporting  to  be  the  genuine  testament  of  the  late  emperor, 
in  which  Constantine  was  made  to  declare  that  he  had  been  poisoned 
by  his  brothers,  and  to  exhort  his  children  to  vengeance.  The  soldiers, 
secretly  prepared  to  second  this  incredible  charge,  loudly  demanded 
the  punishment  of  the  accused  ;  all  legal  forms  were  violated ;  a  pro- 
miscuous massacre  was  made  of  the  Flavian  family.  The  two  brothers 
of  the  great  Constantine,  seven  of  his  nephews,  the  patrician  Optatus, 
who  had  married  his  sister,  and  his  chief  favorite,  the  pr^efect  Ablavius, 
were  butchered,  without  being  permitted  to  speak  a  word  in  their  own 
defenc-j.  Gallus  and  Julian,  the  youngest  sons  of  Julius  Constantius, 
were  with  difficulty  concealed  until  the  rage  of  the  assassins  had  sub- 
sided. 

A  new  division  of  the  empire  was  made  by  the  princes.  Constan 
tine,  the  eldest,  took  possession  of  the  capital ;  Constan'tius  received 
Thrace  and  the  A'^iatic  provinces  ;  the  western  dominions  were  as- 
signed to  Constans.  Ere  long,  the  enemies  of  Ror<=!,  that  had  been 
daunted  by  the  fame  of  Constantine,  began  to  harass  his  successors ; 
but  far  the  most  dangerous  of  the  wars  in  which  they  had  to  engage 
was  that  waged  by  Shah-pur  II.,  king  of  Persia,  against  Constan'tius. 

Shah-pur's  previous  history  deserves  to  be  noticed.  His  father  Hor- 
muz  (Hormisdas)  died,  leaving  no  son  (a.  d.  310) :  the  kingdom  was 
on  the  point  of  being  thrown  into  confusion,  when  it  was  announced  by 
the  principal  mobeds,  or  priests,  that  one  of  the  ladies  in  th-e  harem  was 
pregnant,  and  that  from  certain  indications,  they  knew  that  the  child 
would  be  a  male.  A  strange  ceremony  of  coronation  was  performed 
or  the  unborn  infant.  From  the  hour  of  his  birth  the  whole  nation 
watched  over  his  progress  with  the  most  aftectionate  interest,  and  the 
early  proofs  he  exhibited  of  spirit  and  ability  spread  universal  joy 
through  Persia.  He  had  not  emerged  from  boyhood,  when  the  fierce 
Arab  tribes  from  the  neigboring  peninsula  took  advantage  of  his  minor 
ity  to  desolate  his  kingdom :  the  royal  youth  marched  against  then) 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  303 

touted  their  forces,  slew  many,  and  took  a  greater  numoer  prisoners. 
To  terrify  their  countrymen  from  renewing  such  an  invasion,  he  caused 
the  shoulders  of  his  captives  to  be  pierced,  and  then  dislocated  by  a 
«-rr'Tig  j/ctssed  through  them ;  and  from  this  circumstance  he  received 
the  formidable  title  of  Zulaktaf,  or  "  Lord  of  the  shoulders.'' 

Shah-pur,  or  Sapor  as  he  is  called  by  western  writers,  inherited  the 
pretensions  of  the  Sassanides  to  the  empire  of  C\tus  ;  but  he  was  par- 
ticularly •anxious  to  recover  the  five  provinces  that  had  been  ceded  to 
the  Romans  beyond  the  Tigris,  and  to  assert  the  ancient  supremacy  of 
his  family  over  Mesopotamia.  Constan'tius  hastened  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates  on  the  first  news  of  the  approach  of  so  formidable  an  inva- 
der ;  but  the  war  long  continued  to  be  a  series  of  petty  skirmishes  and 
predatory  incursions.  Nine  sangTiinary  but  indecisive  engagements 
were  fought ;  but  at  length  the  Romans,  by  their  own  imprudence,  re- 
ceived a  decisive  overthrow  in  the  plains  of  Sin'gara  (^Sinjar),  not  far 
from  the  ruins  of  Bab'ylon  (a.  d.  348).  Sapor,  encouraged  by  this 
victory,  laid  siege  to  Nis'ibis  (Nisibin) ;  but,  after  he  had  lost  more  than 
twenty  thousand  men  before  the  walls,  he  was  forced  to  relinquish  the 
enterprise,  and  hasten  to  the  defence  of  his  eastern  provinces,  which 
were  invaded  by  the  fierce  tribes  from  beyond  the  Oxus.  This  war  in- 
duced him  to  propose  terms  of  truce  to  Constan'tius,  which  that  prince 
readily  accepted  (a.  d.  350),  as  the  troubled  state  of  the  empire  ren- 
dered his  presence  necessary  in  Europe. 

Three  years  had  scarcely  elapsed  from  the  partition  of  the  empire, 
when  the  ambition  of  Constan'tine  kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war 
(a.  d.  340).  Not  content  with  wresting  the  African  provinces  from 
Constans,  he  invaded  that  prince's  dominions  through  the  Julian  Alps, 
and  devastated  \he  country  round  Aquileia.  But,  advancing  with  great 
imprudence,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  near  the  little  river  Al'sa  {Ajisa), 
and  was  slain  with  the  greater  part  of  his  followers.  Constans  took 
possession  of  his  brother's  provinces,  and  showed  no  inclination  to  re- 
serve any  share  for  the  absent  Constan'tius. 

During  ten  years  Constans  remained  master  of  two  thirds  of  the  em- 
pire, which  he  plundered  by  his  rapacity,  and  disgraced  by  his  vices. 
He  usually  resided  in  Gaul,  whose  forests  afforded  him  opportunities 
for  hunting,  the  only  mardy  sport  to  which  he  was  addicted.  While 
pursuing  game  iv  a  neighboring  forest,  Magnen'tius,  who  commanded 
the  imperial  forces  stationed  at  Augustodunum  {Autun),  caused  himself 
to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  and  closed  the  gates  of  the  city.  Tidings 
of  the  revolt  were,  however,  conveyed  to  Constans  :  he  fled  toward 
Spain,  but  was  overtaken  at  Ellib'eris  {Elne),  or,  as  it  was  then  called, 
Hel'ena,  in  memory  of  the  mother  of  Constantino,  and  put  to  death. 

The  usurpation  of  Magnen'tius  in  Gaul  Avas  followed  by  that  of  Vo- 
tranio  in  Illyria  ;  but  the  latter  general  assumed  the  purple  very  reluc- 
tantly, being  compelled  by  the  clamors  of  his  soldiers,  and  urged  by  the 
princess  Constantina,  who  placed  the  crown  on  his  head  v/ith  her  own 
hand.  This  ambitious  woman  had  been  the  wife  of  Hannibilianus,  her 
cousin,  whose  sad  fate  has  been  already  mentioned.  She  was  eager  to 
possess  power,  and  so  unscrupulous  about  the  means,  that  she  persuaded 
Vetranio  to  form  an  alliance  with  Magnen'tius,  whose  hands  yet  reeked 
with  the  blood  of  her  brother  Constans. 


304  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Coustan'tius,  having  concluded  a  truce  with  Sapor,  intrusted  the  caie 
of  the  east  to  his  lieutenants,  but  afterwdrd  to  his  cousin  GaJlus,  whom 
he  thus  raised  iVoni  a  prison  to  a  throne.  He  then  hastened  to  Europe, 
deceived  Vetranio  by  offering  to  make  him  his  colleague,  and  obtained 
admission  into  Constantinople.  In  a  public  assembly  of  the  army  and 
people,  the  artful  prince,  in  a  studied  address,  asserted  his  claims  to  the 
empire  ;  a  unanimous  burst  of  applause  was  followed  by  shouts  for  the 
deposition  of  the  usurpers  ;  Vetranio  quietly  submitted,  and,  taking  the 
diadem  I'roiu  his  head,  tended  his  homage  to  Constan'tius.  The  prince 
not  only  spared  his  rival's  life,  but  assigned  him  a  considerable  pension. 
Vetranio  retired  to  Prdsa  [Brusa],  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  Hfe  in 
retirement,  without  ever  expressing  a  desire  to  resume  the  sceptre. 
Magnen'tius  foresaw  that  he  would  be  the  next  assailed,  and  he  led  his 
army  into  lower  Paunonia,  Avhich  became  the  theatre  of  a  fierce  and 
sanguinary  war. 

The  armies  finally  met  for  a  decisive  battle  on  the  plains  of  IMur'sa 
(Essek)  ;  tlie  heavy  cavalry  of  Constan'tius,  sheathed  in  full  panoply  of 
plates  of  steel,  decided  the  fate  of  the  day,  the  very  weight  of  their 
onset  breaking  the  lines  of  the  western  legions,  while  the  light  archers 
of  Asia  harassed  the  naked  German  auxiliaries,  on  w'hom  Majnen'tius 
chiefly  relied,  and  reduced  them  to  such  despair,  that  battalions  threw 
themselves  into  the  rapid  stream  of  the  Drave.  Still,  so  obstinate  was 
the  battle,  that  fifty-four  thousand  fell  in  the  field,  and  the  victors  suf- 
fered more  severely  than  the  vanquished.  It  has  been  justly  observed, 
hat  the  destructive  plains  of  Mur'sa  absorbed  the  strength  of  the 
empire  ;  for  never  again  could  the  Roman  rulers  collect  such  noble 
bands  of  veterans  as  perished  there  by  mutual  slaughter. 

Magnen'tius  fled  to  Italy,  whither  he  was  followed  by  Constan'tius 
in  the  following  spring.  The  peninsula  soon  submitted  to  its  legitimate 
sovereign  ;  but  the  usurper  escaped  into  Gaid.  Finding,  however,  that 
he  could  not  long  protract  resistance,  he  baflled  the  vengeance  of  Con- 
stan'tius by  suicide ;  his  associates  were  reduced  either  to  follow  his 
example,  or  suffer  the  penalties  of  treason. 

Constan'tius  had  given  Constantina  in  marriage  to  his  cousin  Gallus, 
invested  him  with  the  title  of  Caesar,  and  intrusted  him  with  the  admin- 
istration of  Asia.  The  Csesar,  naturally  of  a  sullen  and  morose  temper, 
had  been  soured  by  the  sufferings  of  his  early  youth,  and  his  evil 
passions  were  stimulated  by  the  ambitious  intrigues  of  the  princess  to 
whom  he  was  unfortunately  united.  His  excesses  at  length  compelled 
Constan'tius  to  send  commissioners  to  investigate  the  state  of  the  east : 
these  officers  proceeded  to  Ant'och,  where  they  seem  to  have  conducted 
themselves  with  unnecessary  and  offensive  haughtiness  ;  but  their  faults 
afford  no  sufficient  excuse  for  the  crime  of  Gallus,  who  in-ged  the 
populace  of  Antioch  to  put  the  commissioners  to  death  with  torture  and 
insult,  and  then  ordered  their  bodies  to  be  thrown  into  the  Oron'tes 
(Aaszi/).  Constan'tius,  instead  of  openly  resenting  the  outrage,  invited 
Gallus  to  visit  him  :  the  Caesar  delayed  until  further  procrastination  was 
impossible ;  he  proceeded  on  the  road  to  Milan  through  Asia  and 
Thrace,  in  safety ;  but  when  he  passed  the  frontiers  of  Pannonia,  he 
was  placed  under  arrest,  hurried  to  a  distant  castle  in  Istria,  and  secretly 
put  to  <'.e?.ib  (a.  d.  354).     Julian,  the  only  surviving  descendant  of  Con 


ROMAN    EMPIKE  305 

BUn'tius  Chlorua,  except  the  reigning  emperor,  would  have  shared  his 
brother's  fate,  but  for  the  generous  interference  of  the  empress  Eusebia. 
She  procured  him  permisrsion  to  prosecute  his  studies  in  Athens,  where, 
dazzled  by  the  l;dse  philosophy  of  the  schools,  he  forsook  Christianity 
for  paganism,  and  earned  for  himself  the  unenviable  title  of  Apostate. 
After  he  had  been  more  than  a  year  in  retirement,  he  was  summoned 
to  court,  united  to  ilel'ena,  the  sister  of  the  emperor,  and  appointed  to 
govern  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps,  with  the  title  of  Caesar. 

Constan'tius  himself  had  gained  several  victories  over  the  Germanic 
tribes  ;  but  he  delayed  in  the  west  after  the  departure  of  Julian,  to  sup- 
port the  cause  of  the  Arians  against  the  orthodox  prelates.  Before  re- 
turning to  the  east,  he  resolved  to  visit  the  ancient  capital  of  the  em- 
pire ;  and  Rome,  after  an  interval  of  thirty-two  years,  was  gladdened 
with  the  presence  of  its 'sovereign.  Constai/tius  was  so  pleased  witlj 
his  reception,  that  he  presented  to  the  city  the  splendid  Theban  obelisk, 
with  which  his  father  had  intended  to  adorn  Constantinople.  lie  was 
compelled  to  hurry  his  departure  by  intelligence  of  the  Sarmatians  hav- 
ing invaded  Pannonia.  Constan'tius  soon  appeared  ou  the  Danube  : 
he  gained  several  important  victories  over  the  barbarians  ;  but  scarcely 
had  he  secured  the  tranquillity  of  his  northern  frontiers,  when  he  was 
threatened  with  more  dangerous  hostilities  on  the  side  of  Persia. 

Having  subdued  the  fierce  tribes  of  Turkestan,  Sfqior  renewed  his 
attacks  upon  the  Roman  empire,  and,  guided  by  a  deserter,  entered 
Mesopotamia.  Irritated  by  the  insolence  of  the  inhabitants,  he  laid 
siege  to  Am'ida  (Diarbekr) ;  and  though  he  captured  that  strong  city,  he 
'ost  the  favorable  season  of  invading  Syria,  and  was  forced  to  content 
himself  with  reducing  Sin'gara  {Sanjar)  and  Bezabde  (Jezirah).  Con- 
stan'tius made  an  effort  to  recover  Bezabde,  but  was  compelled  to  raise 
the  siege.  He  returned  to  Antioch,  where  his  mortification  was 
increased  by  intelligence  of  the  brilliant  achievements  of  Julian  in 
Gaul.  The  young  prince  had  vanquished  the  AUcmans,  the  Franks, 
and  several  other  formidable  tribes  ;  he  had  pursued  his  victorious 
career  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  by  his  rapid  conquests  filled  Germany 
with  confusion  ;  while  the  prudence  of  his  civil  administration  raised 
Gaul  to  unexampled  prosperity.  Constan'tius  resolved  to  weaken  the 
strength  of  the  Caesar,  and  summoned  Ids  best  legions  from  Gaul  to 
defend  the  east ;  the  soldiers  refused  to  obey,  and  proclaimed  Julian 
emperor.  Preparations  for  civil  war  were  made  on  both  sides  ;  but  its 
calamities  weie  averted  by  the  death  of  Constan'tius  (a  d.  361).  During 
*liis  entire  reign,  the  Christian  church  was  scandalized  and  distracted 
by  fierce  disputes  arising  out  of  the  Arian  heresy :  Constan'tius  was 
the  avowed  partisan  of  the  Arians,  and  encouraged  them  in  their  per- 
secution of  the  orthodox,  especially  sanctioning  the  efforts  made  or  the 
destruction  of  the  celebrated  Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria. 

When  Julian  reached  Heraclea(£re^/i),  though  he  was  still  sixty  miles 
distant  from  the  capital,  the  whole  population  of  Constantinople  came 
out  to  welcome  his  arrival,  and  he  made  his  triumphal  entry  amid 
general  acclamations.  One  of  his  earliest  measures  was  to  constitute 
a  court  at  Chal'ccjdon  (Scutari)  for  the  trial  of  such  ministers  of  Con- 
stan'tius as  might  be  accused  of  peculation.  Many  of  them  indeed  well 
deserved  punishment ;  but  the  ostentatious  mode  in  which  they  wera 

20 


306  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

brought  to  trial  was  an  ungenerous  attack  on  the  memory  of  the  lat© 
emperor,  and  the  inquisitions  were  conducted  with  such  indiscriminate 
severity,  that  many  innocent  persons  suffered  with  the  guiUy.  He  then 
commenced  a  complete  reform  of  the  court,  banishing  the  eunuchs  and 
other  ministers  of  luxury ;  but  with  the  idle  parade  of  pomp,  Julian 
discarded  many  of  the  decencies  of  life,  ostentatiously  exhibiting  a  dis- 
regard for  personal  cleanliness,  as  if  filth  was  a  necessary  element  of 
philosophy.  But  the  great  object  of  his  ambition  was  to  restore  ancient 
paganism ;  he  revoked  the  edicts  that  had  been  issued  against  idolatry, 
under  the  plausible  pretext  of  granting  freedom  o/  opinion  to  all  his  sub- 
jects ;  he  encouraged  the  philosophers  to  veil  the  most  revolting  fictions 
of  mythology  under  allegorical  explanations  ;  he  showed  a  marked  dis- 
like to  the  Christians  who  visited  the  court ,  and  finally  he  closed  the 
schools  which  were  kept  by  the  clergy. 

But  the  most  remarkable  of  his  enterprises  for  the  overthrow  of 
Christianity  was  his  celebrated  attempt  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, which  appears  to  have  been  miraculously  defeated.  Seeing  that 
the  condition  of  the  Jews  was  a  standing  miracle  in  proof  of  Chris- 
tianity, he  resolved  to  weaken  or  destroy  its  effect,  by  restoring  to  that 
people  their  ancient  city  and  national  worship,  erecting  for  them  at  the 
same  time  a  temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  whose  splendor  should  surpass 
that  of  the  church  of  the  holy  sepulchre.  This  measure  was  frustrated, 
after  great  expense  had  been  incurred  in  making  preparations  for  its 
execution,  as  most  historians  declare,  in  consequence  of  balls  of  lire  that 
burst  from  the  earth,  and  scared  the  workmen  employed  to  dig  the  foun- 
dation. Whether  these  phenomena  were  supernatural,  or  whether  they 
ever  had  existence,  is  really  of  little  importance  in  the  great  weight 
that  the  occurrence  gives  to  the  evidence  in  favor  of  the  divine  origin 
of  Christianity  :  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  the  earth  attempted  to 
erect  a  building  in  one  of  his  cities ;  he  was  aided  by  a  wealthy  and 
sealous  people  ;  pride,  passion,  and  interest,  equally  urged  him  to  per- 
severe ;  yet  was  he  forced  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  Assuredly  we 
must  say,  "  the  finger  of  God  is  here  !" 

While  Julian,  by  withholding  his  countenance  from  sincere  believers 
on  the  one  hand,  and  placing  every  possible  impediment  in  the  way  of 
instruction  on  the  other,  was  using  all  his  efforts  to  check  the  progress 
of  Christianity,  he  was  summoned  to  take  the  field  against  the  Persians, 
who  had  renewed  their  incursions.  Julian  invaded  their  dominions, 
and  gained  several  great  triumphs,  though  he  was  unable  to  bring  the 
enemy  to  a  decisive  engagement.  His  march  led  him  through  the 
deserts  of  Hat'ra,  which  skirt  the  Tigris  ;  but  the  city  of  Hai'ra,  erected 
like  Palmy'ra  in  a  fertile  oasis,  appears  to  have  been  deserted  at  his 
approach.  From  the  magnificence  of  its  ruins,  and  the  fact  that  the 
city  continued  to  be  inhabited  until  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era,  it  is 
probable  that  this,  with  several  other  cities,  was  dismantled  by  the 
Persians  to  deprive  the  Romans  of  the  resources  which  these  "  settle- 
ments in  the  desert,"  might  have  supplied.  At  length,  deceived  by 
treacherous  guides,  he  burned  his  boats,  and  advanced  into  a  desert 
country,  where  his  army  was  soon  reduced  to  great  distress  from  want 
of  provisions.  Under  these  circumstances  he  resolved  to  return ;  buJ 
his  retrograde  march  was  greatly  impeded  by  the  light  cavalry  of  tba 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  307 

/^ersians,  who  hovered  round  the  flanks  and  rear,  discharging  showers 
of  darts  and  arrows,  but  retreating,  like  the  Parthians  their  predecessors 
whenever  any  effort  was  made  to  bring  them  to  a  regular  engagement. 
At  length  Julian  himself  was  mortally  wounded,  in  a  skirmish  wlfich 
proved  favorable  to  the  Romans.  He  died  the  same  night  (a.  d.  363) 
about  twenty  months  after  his  becoming  sole  master  of  the  empire. 

Jovian,  the  first  of  the  domestics,  was  saluted  Augustus  by  the  army; 
and  his  first  care  was  to  conclude  a  dishonorable  peace  with  the  Per- 
sians, resigning  to  Sapor  not  only  the  five  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris, 
but  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia,  including  the  fortified  cities  of  Nis'ibis 
and  Sin'irara,  which  had  so  often  baffled  the  most  vigorous  efforts  of  the 
Sassan'ides.  His  next  enterprise  was  more  glorious  :  he  restored  the 
Christian  religion  to  its  ancient  supremacy  ;  but  he  calmed  the  fears 
of  his  pagan  subjects  by  a  wise  edict  of  toleration,  in  which  he  pro- 
hibited no  rites,  however  idolatrous,  save  those  of  magic.  On  his  jour- 
ney toward  Constantinople,  he  slept  in  a  damp  room,  which  his  attend- 
ants had  heated  with  charcoal ;  he  was  suffocated  by  the  mephitic  va- 
por, and  found  dead  in  his  bed  (a.  d.  364). 

For  ten  days  after  the  death  of  Jovian,  the  empire  remained  without 
a  sovereign.  At  length  the  Count  Valentinian  was  chosen  by  the  coun- 
cil of  ministers  and  generals,  and  the  army  unanimously  acquiesced  in 
their  decision.  Soon  after  his  election  the  new  emperor  divided  his 
dominions  with  his  brother  Valens,  to  whom  he  assigned  the  eastern 
provinces,  reserving  to  himself  Illyr'icum,  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Britain, 
and  Africa.  The  emperor  of  the  west  made  Milan  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment ;  Valens  established  his  court  at  Constantinople.  This  divis- 
ion of  the  Roman  dominions  into  eastern  and  western  empires  was  so 
manifestly  required  by  the  necessity  of  the  times,  that  it  provoked  nei- 
ther observation  nor  remonstrance.  Henceforth  their  histories  re- 
quire separate  consideration  ;  and  we  shall,  in  the  first  place,  direct  out 
attention  to  the  reign  of  Valentinian. 

The  emperor  had  scarcely  reached  Italy,  when  he  was  summoned  to 
cross  the  Alps  by  an  invasion  of  the  Germans,  who  devastated  all  north- 
ern and  western  Gaul,  defeating  two  Roman  armies  that  had  been  sent 
to  check  their  inroads.  Valentinian  made  the  most  vigorous  efforts  to 
retrieve  the  fame  of  the  empire,  and  succeeded  ;  but  his  exertions 
brought  on  a  disease  that  nearly  deprived  him  of  life.  The  angry  dis- 
putes respecting  the  succession  which  had  taken  place  during  his  ill- 
ness, filled  him  with  just  alarm :  and  immediately  after  his  recovery, 
he  ojok  care  to  have  his  son  Gratian  recognised  as  his  heir,  and  pro- 
claimed Caesar  in  the  presence  of  the  army.  The  piracies  of  the  Sax- 
ons in  the  northern  seas  first  began  to  attract  attention  in  the  reign  of 
Valentinian  ;  and  so  severely  did  they  harass  the  northern  coasts  of 
Gaul,  that  it  was  necessary  to  appoint  a  maritime  court  for  their  pro- 
tection. At  the  same  time  the  province  of  Britain  was  invaded  by  the 
Picts  and  Scots :  so  rapid  was  the  progress  of  the  barbarians,  aided 
probably  by  some  of  the  discontented  natives,  that  Britain  would  have 
been  lost  to  the  empire,  but  for  the  heroic  exertions  of  Theodosius,  M 
whom  Valentinian  intrusted  the  pacification,  or  rather  the  recovery  of 
the  island.  This  able  commander  not  only  restrained  the  barbarians, 
but  in  some  measure  restored  the  ancient  prosperity  of  the  province  : 


308  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

he  was  rewarded  by  tlie  emperor  with  the  office  of  master-general  of 
the  cavalry,  and  af  pointed  to  protect  the  frontier  of  the  upper  Danube 
from  the  inroads  of  the  AUemans,  until  he  was  chosen  to  a  more  im- 
portant station,  and  intrusted  with  the  suppression  of  the  formidable  re- 
volt of  Africa. 

Count  Romanus,  the  military  governor  of  Africa,  had  provoked  gen- 
eral resentment  by  his  avarice  and  exactions  ;  complaints  were  made 
of  him  to  Valentinian,  and  a  commissioner  appointed  to  investigate  his 
delinquency  ;  but  the  count  bribed  the  imperial  ministers  and  commis- 
sioners, purchased  security  from  a  venal  court,  and  severely  punished 
those  who  had  been  guilty  of  the  treason  of  complaint.  Provoked  by 
such  accumulated  wTongs,  the  Africans  revolted,  choosing  for  their 
leader  Fin'nus,  the  son  of  the  wealthy  Nabal,  who  had  been  summoned 
to  appear  before  the  governor's  tribunal  on  a  charge  of  murdering  his 
brother.  Numidia  and  Mauritania  were  already  in  possession  of  the 
insurgents,  when  the  entire  face  of  the  war  was  changed  by  the  arrival 
of  Theodosius  :  from  the  moment  of  his  landing,  the  revolters  seem  to 
have  lost  all  courage  ;  after  a  weak  struggle,  Fin'nus  abandoned  his 
army,  to  seek  refuge  with  the  prince  of  a  native  tribe  in  the  interior ; 
but  he  was  betrayed  to  the  Romans,  and  could  only  escape  a  public  ex- 
ecution by  committing  suicide.  Scarcely  had  this  war  terminated, 
when  Valentinian  died  suddenly,  while  waging  war  against  the  Quadi 
(a.  d.  375).  He  had  conquered  these  savage  warriors,  and  deputies 
had  been  sent  to  deprecate  his  resentment ;  but  while  reproaching  the 
ambassadors  with  national  perfidy,  he  worked  himself  into  such  a  pas- 
sion, that  he  burst  a  blood-vessel,  and  instantly  expired.  Valentinian 
was  naturally  cruel  and  severe,  but  he  was  disposed  to  be  inflexibly 
just ;  and  the  many  unmerited  executions  that  he  sanctioned  must  be 
attributed  to  the  artifices  of  corrupt  ministers.  He  was  warmly  attached 
to  the  orthodox  faith,  and  readily  gave  shelter  to  the  bishops  and  clergy 
who  sought  refuge  in  liis  court  from  the  persecutions  of  his  brother 
Valens. 

The  emperor  of  the  east,  soon  after  his  accession,  went  into  Syria, 
which  was  threatened  by  a  Persian  invasion;  but  before  he  could 
complete  his  preparations  for  war,  he  was  alarmed  by  the  revolt  of  Pro- 
copius,  a  kinsman  of  the  emperor  Julian,  but  possessing  no  other  merit, 
whose  pretensions  were  acknowledged  by  a  considerable  body  of  the 
army,  and  the  citizens  of  Constantinople.  Valens  was  defeated  in  his 
first  efforts  to  overthrow  the  usurper ;  but  Procopius  soon  disgusted  his 
supporters  by  excessive  haughtiness  and  tyranny ;  he  was  deserted  by 
those  who  had  been  foremost  in  placing  him  upon  the  throne,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  almost  without  a  contest.  His  fate  involved  that  of  many 
others,  for  Valens  was  a  stranger  to  mercy.  The  emperor  was  soon 
more  honorably  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Goths,  whom  he  completely 
subdued,  and  compelled  to  submit  to  humiliating  conditions  of  peace. 

The  dangerous  schism  in  the  church  caused  by  the  heresy  of  A'riua 
was  greatly  aggravated  by  the  intemperate  zeal,  and  in  some  instances 
by  the  unhallowed  ambition  of  rival  prelates :  Valens  declared  himself 
a  patron  of  the  Arians,  and  caused  no  fewer  than  eighty  orthodox 
ecclesiastics  to  be  murdered,  for  maintaining  the  election  of  a  bishop  of 
iheir  creed  to  the  see  o'  Constantinople.    Armenia  was  at  the  same 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


309 


time  invaded  by  the  Persians  ;  but  Sapor  having  received  a  severe  de- 
feat, and  the  Armenian  prince  Paras,  on  whose  aid  he  relied,  having 
been  treacherously  murdered  by  the  Romans,  the  truce  vs^as  once  more 
renewed. 

In  the  western  empire  Valentinian  had  been  succeeded  by  his  sons 
Gratian  and  Valentinian  II. ;  the  latter,  a  child  only  five  years  old,  was 
added  as  a  colleague  to  Gratian  by  the  general  council  of  the  army. 
Gratian  II.  commenced  his  reign  by  punishing  those  ministers  and  sen- 
ators who  had  been  guilty  of  extortion ;  but  yielding  to  the  suggestions 
of  envious  courtiers,  he  sanctioned  the  execution  of  the  gallant  Theodo- 
sius,  who  had  just  completed  his  conquest  of  the  Moors  :  the  emperor, 
after  some  time,  discovered  by  what  gross  misrepresentations  he  had 
been  led  to  commit  so  great  a  crime,  and  bitterly  repented  of  his  guilt. 
He  made  several  laws  favorable  to  the  interest  of  the  church,  ordaining 
tbat  all  controversies  respecting  religion  should  be  decided  by  the  bishop 
and  synod  of  the  provinces  in  which  they  occurred  ;  that  the  clergy 
should  be  free  from  personal  charges  ;  and  that  all  places  where  hetero- 
dox doctrines  were  taught  should  be  confiscated. 

The  western  empire  was  enjoying  profound  peace,  and  the  sastern 
provinces  were  beginning  to  taste  the  unusual  sweets  of  repose,  when 
a  people  more  ferocious  than  any  barbarians  hitherto  known  appeared 
for  the  first  time  on  the  northeastern  frontiers.     The  Huns,  crossing 
the  Tanais  (Don)  and  Palus  Ma^otis  {Sea  of  Azov),  drove  before  them  the 
nations  that  dwelt  north  of  the  Danube  ;  and  these  fugitives,  hurled  one 
upon  another,  were   forced  to  invade  the  Roman  provinces,  and  com- 
mence the  dismemberment  of  the  empire.     The  earliest  accounts  of  the 
Huns  are  to  be  found  in  the  Chinese  historians,  who  call  these  savages, 
"  Hulng  Nii,"  and  describe  them  as  masters  of  the  country  between 
the  river  Irtish,  the  Altaian  mountains,  the  Chinese  wall,  and  Mantchew 
Tartary.     Their  personal  appearance  v/as  almost  a  caricature  of  hu- 
manity ;  so  that  the  Romans  compared  them  to  a  block  of  \yood  which 
had  been  only  partially  trimmed  :  this  is  said  to  have  been  in  som^  de- 
gree caused  by  the  strange  custom  of  flattening  the  nose  of  male  in- 
fants the  moment  they  were  born,  in  order  that  the  vizor  which  they 
wore  ir.  battle  should  fit  closer  to  the  face,  and  also  to  their  plucking 
out  the  beard  by  the  roots  as  soon  as  it  began  to  grow.     They  lived  on 
raw  flesh,  or  at  best  only  sodden  by  being  placed  under  their  saddles 
and  pressed  against  the  backs  of  their  steeds  during  a  sharp  gallop : 
devoted  to  war  and  the  chase,  they  left  the  cultivation  of  their  fields  to 
womer  and  slaves  ;  they  built  no  cities  ;  they  erected  no  houses  ;  any 
place   encircled  by  walls  they  looked  upon  as  a  sepulchre,  and  never 
believed  themselves  in  safety  beneath  a  roof.     About  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  southern  Huns, 
aided  by  the  Chinese  and  the  eastern  Tartars,  expelled  their  northern 
brethren  from  their  ancient  habitations,  and   compelled  them  to  seek 
refuge  in  the  territories  of  the  Bashkirs.     Here  they  were  brought  into 
contact  with  a  fiercer  but  less  warlike  race,  the  A'lans,  whom  they 
gradually  drove  before  them,  being  pressed  forward  themselves  by  fresh 
hordes  from  the  east,  until  they  took  possession  of  the  plains  between 
the  Rha  (  Volga)  and  the  Tanais. 

Joined  by  the  Allans  and  other  barbarous  tribes  that  they  had  cou 


310  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

quered,  the  innumerable  cavalry  of  the  Huns  passed  the  lower  Tanuis. 
and  swept  the  rich  fields  of  the  Ostrogoths.  The  Gothic  armies  were 
defeated,  and  at  length  the  greater  part  of  that  nation  abandoned  the 
country  that  they  had  laboriously  brought  to  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
and  Vetired  beyond  the  Borys'thenes  [Dnieper)  and  the  Danas'tus 
(Dniester).  The  Huns  made  a  horrible  carnage  of  those  who  remained, 
sparing  neither  women  nor  children  ;  and  all  who  did  not  save  them- 
selves by  a  precipitate  flight,  perished  by  the  edge  of  the  sword.  The 
conquerors  soon  passed  the  Danas'tus,  and  inflicted  the  same  calami- 
ties on  the  Visigoths  to  which  they  had  already  subjected  their  eastern 
brethren.  Athan'aric,  the  Gothic  monarch,  after  having  suffered  a  se- 
vere defeat,  saw  no  better  mode  of  defence  than  to  fortify  himself  be- 
tween the  Hieras'sus  [Pruth)  and  the  Danube,  by  a  wall  extending  from 
one  river  to  the  other,  leaving  the  rest  of  his  country  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  the  dreadful  Huns. 

The  whole  Gothic  nation  was  reduced  to  despair ;  their  warriors, 
who  had  so  often  maintained  a  fierce  struggle  against  the  legions,  now 
appeared  as  suppliants  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  petitioning  for  per- 
mission to  cultivate  the  Avaste  lands  of  Thrace.  Their  request  was 
granted,  on  condition  of  their  resigning  their  arms  ;  but  the  officers  sent 
to  see  this  stipulation  enforced  were  bribed  to  neglect  their  duty :  most 
of  the  Goths  retained  tlieir  weapons,  which  they  regarded  as  the  means 
of  obtaining  more  valuable  possessions  than  those  they  had  lost. 

About  the  same  time,  Arianism  was  established  among  the  Goths, 
by  the  exertions  of  their  bishop,  the  celebrated  Ul'philas,  who  invented 
the  Gothic  alphabet :  this  subsequently  aggravated  their  hostility  to  the 
Romans ;  for  the  enmity  of  rival  sects  had,  toward  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century,  become  greater  than  that  between  Christians  and  pa- 
gans. The  officers  whom  Valens  chose  to  superintend  the  settlement 
of  the  Goths  were  the  most  profligate  extortioners  even  of  his  corrupt 
court ;  instead  of  supplying  provisions  to  the  fugitives  until  their  new 
lands  would  yield  a  harvest,  as  had  been  promised,  they  closed  the  mag- 
azines, and  charged  exorbitant  prices  for  the  worst  and  most  revolting 
kinds  of  food.  At  length  Lupicinus  attempted  to  murder  Frit'igern  and 
the  other  chiefs  of  the  Goths,  at  a  banquet  in  Marcianop'olis  {Pravadi) 
to  which  they  had  been  treacherously  invited.  The  plot  exploded  pre- 
maturely ;  the  Gothic  leaders  escaped  ;  and  their  followers  took  revenge 
for  the  atrocious  breach  of  hospitality  by  massacring  the  greater  part 
of  the  Roman  legions.  In  the  meantime,  the  Ostrogoths,  pressed  for- 
ward by  the  Huns,  had  crossed  the  Danube  and  reinforced  Frit'igern 
just  as  the  war  was  about  to  commence :  thus  supported,  the  irritated 
sovereign  devastated  Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Thessaly,  approached  the 
walls  of  Constantinople,  and  destroyed  its  suburbs.  Valens  wrote  to 
Gratian  for  aid  ;  and  the  young  emperor,  though  harassed  by  wars  with 
the  Germanic  tribes  and  the  A'lans,  marched  to  his  assistance.  He 
was  delayed,  however,  by  illness  at  Sir'mium ;  and  before  he  could  re- 
sume his  march,  Valens  was  no  more.  The  eastern  emperor,  baffled 
by  the  artifices  and  enraged  by  the  boldness  of  Frit'igem,  hazarded  a 
decisive  battle  near  Adrianople,  in  which  he  was  defeated  and  slain 
(a.  d.  378).  The  Romans  had  not  suff'ered  so  severe  a  loss  since  they 
were  overthrown  by  Han'nibal  at  Cannae :  two  thirds  of  the  legions, 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  311 

including  thirty-five  tribunes  and  commanders  of  cohorts,  fell  in  the  fata) 
field. 

Gratian  was  incapable  of  remedying  this  disaster  without  the  aid  of 
a  colleague,  for  he  could  not  advance  against  the  Goths  without  leaving 
the  western  provinces  a  prey  to  the  Germans.  He  chose  as  his  asso- 
ciate Theodosius,  afterward  named  the  Great,  son  of  the  elder  The- 
odosius,  whom  he  had  unjustly  put  to  death. 

The  accession  of  Theodosius  was  hailed  with  delight  by  all  the  east- 
em  provinces  ;  he  defeated  the  Goths  in  the  field  ;  but  what  was  of  still 
greater  importance,  he  won  their  afTections  by  his  justice  and  modera- 
tion ;  so  that  they  voluntarily  promised  not  only  to  abstain  from  hostili- 
ties, but  to  protect  the  frontiers  of  the  Danube.  Being  himself  sin- 
cerely attached  to  the  orthodox  faith,  he  summoned  a  general  council  at 
Constantinople  to  check  the  progress  of  heresy,  and  issued  several 
edicts  to  restrain  the  teachers  of  erroneous  opinions.  While  he  was 
thus  engaged,  Max'imus,  the  governor  of  Britain,  revolted  against  Gra- 
tian, and  was  joined  by  the  whole  of  the  western  legions.  The  em- 
peror, seeing  himself  abandoned  by  his  troops,  fled  toward  Italy,  but 
was  overtaken  at  Lugdiinum  [Lyons),  and  put  to  death  (a.  d.  383). 
St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  courageously  went  into  Gaul,  claimed 
the  body  ol  the  deceased  emperor  from  the  usurper,  obtained  it  after 
some  delay,  and  honorably  interred  the  remains  of  Gratian  in  the  sep- 
ulchre that  had  been  raised  for  the  Valentinian  family  in  the  Milanese 
cathedral. 

Max'imus,  to  support  his  usurpation,  had  brought  with  him  the  flower 
of  the  British  youth ;  but  the  Roman  province,  thus  deprived  of  its  de- 
fenders, was  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  Picts  and  Scots,  who  broke 
through  the  Roman  wall,  and  pushed  their  incursions  far  into  the  south. 
Theodosius,  harassed  by  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians  in  the  east,  at 
first  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Max'imus  :  but  the  usurper,  encouraged 
by  impunity,  soon  meditated  depriving  Valentinian  II.  of  Italy,  though 
that  prince  had  shown  little  inclination  to  revenge  the  murder  of  Gra- 
tian, his  brother  and  benefactor.  Valentinian,  unable  to  defend  his  ter- 
ritories, fled  to  Theodosius,  who  instantly  marched  against  Max'imus. 
The  usurper  was  defeated  in  two  decisive  battles  ;  he  sought  shelter  in 
Aquileia  •  but  he  was  arrested  by  his  own  soldiers,  brought  in  chains  to 
Theodosius-,  and  executed  (a.  d.  388).  It  is  said  that  his  death  was 
hastened  by  the  imperial  ministers,  who  feared  that  he  might  extort  a 
pardon  from  their  master's  compassion. 

The  generous  conqueror  not  only  restored  Valentinian  to  his  ancient 
dominions,  but  resigned  to  him  the  provinces  that  had  belonged  to  Gra- 
tian. Having  visited  Rome,  and  sanctioned  some  severe  measures  for 
extirpating  idolatry  in  that  city,  he  returned  to  the  east,  where  he  made 
similar  eflforts  to  crush  pagan  superstitions  and  Christian  heresies.  The 
young  Valentinian  did  not  long  retain  his  throne  ;  he  was  murdered  by 
Arbogas'tes,  a  Frank,  whom  he  had  unwisely  admitted  to  too  great  a 
share  of  sovereign  power  (a.  d.  392).  The  Frank  did  not  dare  to  as- 
sume the  purple  himself,  but  he  conferred  the  empire  on  one  of  the  royal 
secretaries,  named  Eugenius,  whom  he  trusted  that  he  could  make  the 
mere  instrument  of  his  ambition. 

Theodosius  refused  to  enter  into  any  negotiation  with  the  usurper 


312  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

but  made  preparations  for  war.  Having  levied  a  powerful  army,  h« 
forced  the  passes  of  the  Alps  (a  d.  394),  and  encountering  the  forces 
of  Eugenius  on  the  banks  of  the  Frig'idum  ( Wibach),  put  them  to  the 
rout.  The  usurper  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers,  and  Arbogas'- 
tes  committed  suicide.  Theodosius,  in  consequence  of  this  victory,  be- 
came master  of  the  whole  Roman  empire,  which  was  thus  once  more 
reunited  under  a  single  head. 

Section  X. — The   Overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire. 

FROM    A.   D.  394  TO  A.  D.  476. 

Theodosius  was  well  aware  that  the  partition  of  the  empire  origin 
ally  made  by  Valentinian  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  condition  of 
the  Roman  dominions  in  Europe  and  Asia ;  he  therefore  invited  his 
younger  son  Honoring  to  receive  the  sceptre  of  the  western  empire,  ap 
pointing  Arcadius,  the  elder,  his  successor  on  the  throne  of  Constanti- 
nople. He  did  not  long  survive  this  arrangement ;  the  ease  and  luxury 
in  which  he  indulged  after  his  victory  proved  fatal  to  a  constitution 
already  enfeebled  by  the  fatigues  of  a  severe  campaign :  he  died  uni- 
versally lamented  by  his  subjects,  who  knew  too  well  that  they  "  ne'er 
should  loolc  upon  his  like  again." 

Arcadius  and  Honorius  ascended  the  thrones  bequeathed  to  them  by 
their  father,  but  both  abandoned  the  cares  of  empire  to  their  ministers 
Rufinus  and  Stil'icho.  There  are  few  greater  stains  on  the  charactei 
of  Theodosius  than  his  elevation  of  such  an  unworthy  favorite  as  Ru 
finus,  a  wretch  whom  all  parties  describe  as  stained  with  every  crime 
He  was  the  scourge  of  the  east,  and  was  universally  hated  :  aware  of 
his  unpopularity,  he  resolved  to  secure  his  power  by  uniting  Arcadiu? 
in  marriage  with  his  daughter ;  but  some  courtiers,  jealous  of  his  in- 
fluence, took  advantage  of  his  absence  to  persuade  the  young  emperoi 
to  share  his  throne  with  Eudox'ia,  universally  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  woman  of  her  age.  Though  disappointed  in  this  darling  ob- 
ject of  his  ambition,  the  wealth  and  power  of  Rufmus  enabled  him  to 
triumph  over  Arcadius  and  his  courtiers  ;  but  he  dreaded  more  justly  his 
great  rival  in  the  western  empire. 

S'il'icho,  the  minister  and  master-general  of  the  v-'est,  was  worthy  of 
the  eminent  station  to  which  he  had  been  raised  b-_,  Theodosius.  Or 
his  death-bed  the  emperor  recommended  to  him  the  charge  of  both  em- 
pires ;  but  some  pretext  was  necessary  for  assembling  a  force  suffi- 
cient to  depose  Rufinus,  without  giving  such  alarm  as  would  put  tha* 
wary  statesman  on  his  guard.  The  Gothic  war  furnished  the  desired 
excuse  ;  Stil'icho  led  his  forces  round  the  Adriatic  ;  but  he  had  scarce- 
ly reached  Thessalonica,  when  he  received  orders  to  return,  with  a 
threat  that  his  nearer  approach  to  Constantinople  would  be  considered 
a  declaration  of  war.  Leaving  the  army  in  the  charge  of  the  Gai'nas, 
Stil'icho  returned  to  Italy  ;  and  Rufinus,  believing  all  danger  past,  Avent 
to  review  the  western  troops.  As  he  passed  along  the  ranks,  he  was 
suddenly  surrounded  by  a  chosen  band,  and,  on  a  signal  from  Gainas 
pinned  to  the  earth  by  a  lance,  and  mangled  with  a  thousand  wounds 
If  Stil'icho  had  contrived  this  murder,  he  derived  no  advantage  from  it 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  313 

Gainas,  the  eunuch  Eutropius,  and  the  empress  Eudox'ia,  combinfjd  to 
exchide  him  from  Constantinople  ;  their  puppet  Arcadius  procured  a 
decree  from  his  obsequious  senate,  declaring  him  a  public  enemy,  and 
confiscating  all  his  property  in  the  east. 

Instead  of  hazarding  a  civil  war,  Stil'icho  exerted  himself  to  sup- 
press the  revolt  which  Gil'do,  the  brother  of  Fir'mus,  had  excited  in 
Africa.  He  intrusted  the  command  of  the  forces  raised  for  this  pur- 
pose to  Mas'cezel,  the  brother  and  deadly  enemy  of  Gil'do.  Accident 
left  the  Romans  an  almost  bloodless  victory.  Before  giving  the  signal 
to  engage,  Mas'cezel  rode  to  the  front  of  the  lines  with  fair  offers  of 
peace  and  pardon ;  he  encountered  one  of  the  standard-bearers  of  the 
Africans,  and,  on  his  refusal  to  yield,  struck  him  on  the  arm  with  his 
sword.  The  weight  of  the  blow  threw  the  standard  and  its  bearer  pros- 
trate. This  was  regarded  by  the  rest  as  a  signal  of  submission,  which 
all  the  African  legions  hastened  to  imitate  ;  they  flung  down  their  en- 
signs, and,  with  one  accord,  renewed  their  allegiance  to  .heir  rightful 
sovereign.  Gil'do  attempted  to  fly,  but  he  was  arrested  by  the  citizens 
of  Tab'raca  (Tabarca),  and  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  where  he  commit- 
ted suicide,  to  avoid  the  punishment  of  treason.  Mas'cezel  was  subse- 
quently murdered  by  Stil'icho,  who  feared  the  hereditary  enmity  of  the 
house  of  Nabal. 

The  Goths  were  now  become  more  formidable  than  they  had  ever 
been.  Instead  of  being  guided  by  several  independent  chiefs,  they 
were  united  into  a  compact  body  under  the  renowned  Al'aric  ;  and  the 
withholding  of  the  subsidy  paid  them  by  Theodosius,  afforded  a  plau- 
sible pretext  for  war  (a.  d.  396).  Disdaining  to  ravage  the  exhausted 
lands  of  Thrace,  AKaric  led  his  soldiers  into  Greece,  passed  the  straits 
of  Thermop'ylge  without  opposition,  devastated  Bceotia,  At'tica,  and  the 
Peloponnesus,  while  Athens,  Corinth,  Ar'gos,  and  Spar'ta,  yielded  to 
the  barbarous  invaders  without  opposition.  Stil'icho  hastened  to  repel 
the  Goths  from  Greece.  His  masterly  movements  drove  Al'aric  into  a 
corner  of  Elis,  whence  his  extrication  appeared  impossible  ;  but  the 
Goth,  perceiving  that  the  watchfulness  of  his  enemies  was  relaxed, 
gained  the  gulf  of  Corinth  by  a  rapid  march,  passed  over  the  narrow 
strait  between  the  headlands  of  Rhium  and  Antir'rhium  {Dardanelles  of 
Lepanto),  and  was  maister  of  Epirus  before  Stil'icho  could  renew  his 
pursuit.  The  Romans  were  preparing  to  pass  into  northern  Greece 
when  they  received  information  that  Al'aric  had  not  only  made  hit* 
peacg  with  the  Byzantine  court,  but  had  been  appointed  master-general 
of  Illyr'icum  by  the  feeble  Arcadius. 

Stil'icho  returned  to  Italy,  and  was  soon  compelled  to  defend  that 
peninsula  against  Al'aric,  who  forced  a  passage  over  the  Julian  Alps, 
and  advanced  toward  Milan.  Honorius  fled  from  his  capital,  but  was 
so  hotly  chased,  that  he  was  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  As'ta  {Asli), 
which  the  Goths  immediately  blockaded.  Stil'icho  hastened  to  the 
relief  of  his  sovereign,  and  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Al'aric  at 
PoUentia  [Polenza) ;  but  the  Gothic  sovereign,  having  rallied  his  shat- 
tered forces,  crossed  the  Appenines,  and  made  a  sudden  rush  toward 
Rome  (a.  d.  403).  The  capital  was  saved  by  the  diUgence  of  Stil'- 
icho ;  but  Al'aric's  departure  from  Italy  was  purchased  by  a  large 
pension. 


314 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Honorius  went  to  Rome,  where  he  enjoyed  the  empty  honor  of  being 
received  in  triumph ;  but  after  a  short  time  he  removed  to  Raven'na, 
which  from  this  time  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  secure  seat  of 
Italian  government.  Scarcely  had  Al'aric  departed,  when  Italy  waa 
invaded  by  new  hordes  of  Vandals,  Suevi,  Burgundians,  and  Goths, 
under  the  command  of  Radagaisus.  Once  more  the  peninsula  was 
saved  by  Stil'icho :  he  allowed  the  barbarians  to  lay  siege  to  Florence, 
which  was  well  garrisoned  and  provisioned  ;  then  securing  all  the  pas- 
ses, he  blockaded  them  in  their  turn,  and  reduced  them  to  such  distress, 
that  they  surrendered  at  discretion  (a.  d.  406).  Radagaisus  was  put  to 
death ;  his  followers  were  sold  as  slaves ;  but  about  two  thirds  of  the 
hordes  fell  back  upon  Gaul,  and  laid  waste  that  province  from  the  Rhine 
to  the  Pyrenees.  The  provincials,  receiving  no  aid  from  the  court  of 
Raven'na,  proclaimed  Constantine,  the  governor  of  Britain,  emperor, 
who  gained  some  advantages  over  the  Germans,  and  wrested  Spain 
from  Honorius.  Stil'icho  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Al'aric  against  the 
usurper ;  but  before  it  could  take  effect,  the  able  minister  was  treach- 
erously murdered  by  his  unworthy  master  (a.  d.  408),  and  the  wretched 
Olym'pus  was  appointed  premier  in  his  stead.  The  first  measure  of 
the  new  minister  was  as  impolitic  as  it  was  monstrous.  He  ordered  a 
promiscuous  massacre  of  the  families  of  the  barbarians  throughout  Ita- 
ly, instead  of  retaining  them  as  hostages  for  the  fidelity  of  his  merce- 
nary cohorts.  The  barbarous  edict  was  too  well  obeyed ;  and  thirty 
thousand  of  the  bravest  soldiers  in  the  Roman  pay  invited  Al'aric  to 
head  them  in  avenging  the  slaughter  of  their  wives  and  children. 

Al'aric  was  not  slow  in  obeying  the  summons :  he  hastened  into 
Italy,  and,  disregarding  meaner  prizes,  marched  directly  against  Rome 
(a.  d.  408).  "The  eternal  city"  was  closely  besieged:  plague,  pesti- 
lence, and  famine,  raged  Mathin  its  walls.  The  emperor  at  Raven'na 
made  no  effort  to  relieve  his  hapless  subjects  ;  and  the  senate  at  length 
purchased  temporary  safety  by  paying  an  enormous  ransom.  Al'aric 
led  his  forces  into  Tuscany,  and  was  joined  on  his  march  by  forty 
thousand  Goths  and  Germans,  Avhom  his  victorious  career  had  enabled 
to  burst  the  bonds  of  slavery.  Honorius  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty 
that  had  been  concluded  by  the  Romans ;  and  in  the  following  year, 
Al'aric  appeared  once  more  before  the  city.  He  took  possession  of  Os- 
tia,  where  the  magazines  were  established  for  the  corn  that  supplied 
the  capital ;  and  having  thus  deprived  the  citizens  of  all  means  of  sus- 
tenance, summoned  them  to  surrender.  They  complied  with  great  re- 
luctance :  Al'aric  raised  At'talus  to  the  empire,  but  soon  deposed  him, 
and  renewed  his  negotiations  with  the  court  of  Raven'na.  Once  more 
Honorius  refused  to  treat,  and  once  more  AFaric  marched  to  punish  the 
Romans  for  the  crime  of  their  sovereign  (a.  d.  410).  He  marched 
against  Rome ;  the  Gothic  slaves  in  the  city  opened  to  him  one  of  the 
gates,  and  the  city  became  the  prey  of  the  barbarians.  The  horrors 
of  the  pillage  that  ensued  were  in  some  degree  alleviated  by  the  piety 
of  the  Goths,  who  spared  the  churches  and  religious  houses.  AParic 
himself  was  unwilling  that  a  city  which  had  been  so  long  the  mistress 
of  the  world  should  be  so  totally  ruined ;  and  on  the  sixth  day  after  its 
capture  evacuated  the  place,  and  took  the  road  for  southern  Italy.  He 
WIS  preparing  to  invade  Sicily,  when  he  was  seized  with  a  mortal  diti 


ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


313 


ease,  which  brought  him  prematurely  to  his  grave.  His  remains  were 
interred  in  the  bed  of  a  small  rivulet  near  Consen'tia  (Cuse7iza),  and 
the  captives  who  prepared  his  grave  were  murdered,  in  order  that  the 
Romans  might  never  learn  the  place  of  his  sepulture. 

Adol'phus  succeeded  his  brother  Al'aric,  and  concluded  a  peace  with 
ihe  empire,  on  condition  of  receiving  the  princess  Placid'ia  as  his 
bride.  He  led  his  forces  into  Gaul,  reunited  that  province  to  the  do- 
minions of  Honorius,  and  then  passed  into  Spain,  which  had  been  inva- 
ded by  hordes  of  Suevi,  Vandals,  and  A'lans.  He  was  murdered  ;  but 
his  successor  Wal'lia  established  the  supremacy  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain  and  the  east  of  Gaul.  About  the  same  time,  the  Franks,  the 
Burgundians,  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  established  themselves  in 
Gaut ;  while  Britain  and  Armorica,  neglected  by  the  emperor,  became 
independent.  The  Britons  had  so  degenerated  under  the  empire,  that 
they  were  unable  to  resist  the  barbarous  Picts  and  Scots ;  they  there- 
fore applied  for  aid  to  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  warlike  tribes  (a.  d.  448). 
The  Saxons  readily  obeyed  the  summons  ;  but,  after  repelling  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  they  took  possession  of  southern  Britain,  which  they  named 
Angle-land,  since  contracted  into  England. 

In  the  meantime,  the  reign  of  Arcadius  in  the  east  was  dishonored 
by  the  profligate  administration  of  the  eunuch  Eutropius  and  the  em- 
press Eudox'ia,  to  whose  cruelty  the  most  illustrious  persons,  and 
among  others  St.  Chrysostom,  were  victims.  After  his  death  (a.  d. 
408),  the  young  Theodosius  succeeded  to  the  purple ;  but  the  adminis- 
tration was  usurped  by  his  sister  Pulcheria,  who  ruled  the  east  with 
singular  energy  and  ability  for  more  than  forty  years.  During  a  great 
portion  of  this  period,  there  was  little  sympathy  between  the  courts  of 
Rome  and  Constantinople  ;  but  the  family  intercourse  was  rencAved 
when  Placid'ia,  the  widow  of  Adol'phus,  was  banished  by  her  brother, 
after  the  death  of  her  second  husband  Constantius.  She  sought  refuge 
in  the  court  of  Theodosius,  bringing  with  her  Valentinian  and  Honoria, 
her  infant  children.  She  had  scarcely  time  to  enjoy  the  hospitality 
with  which  she  was  received,  when  news  arrived  of  the  death  of  Ho- 
norius (a.  d.  423),  and  the  usurpation  of  the  empire  by  John,  his  prin- 
cipal secretary.  Theodosius  levied  an  army  to  support  the  claims  of 
his  relative  ;  John  was  deposed  and  slain  ;  Valentinian  HI.  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  o  the  west,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother 
Placid'ia ;  and  thus  two  women  wielded  the  destinies  of  the  civilized 
world. 

Placid'ia,  seduced  by  the  interested  crunsels  of  her  minister  ^E'tius, 
recalled  Count  Boniface,  the  most  faithful  friend  of  the  imperial  family, 
from  Africa  ;  but  that  governor,  deceived  by  the  same  crafty  adviser, 
refused  obedience,  and  invited  Gen'seric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  to  his 
aid.  That  nation  occupied  the  Spanish  province,  called  from  them 
Vandalusia,  a  name  which  it  still  retains,  with  but  slight  alteration. 
They  were  still  restless,  eager  to  seek  further  conquests  and  fresh 
plunder,  so  that  nothing  could  have  been  more  grateful  to  Gen'seric 
than  such  an  invitation.  Boniface  had  soon  reason  to  lament  the  eflfeois 
of  his  precipitate  resentment.  When  it  was  too  late,  he  attempted  to 
check  the  progress  of  the  Vandals,  and  returned  to  his  allegiance. 
Auxiliaries  were  sent  to  his  aid  from  the  eastern  empire  ;  but  the  ua 


3x6  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  . 

« 

fortunate  count  ^ras  irretrievably  defeated.  He  returned  to  Italy,  where 
he  engaged  in  a  civil  war  with  jE'tius,  and  was  slain  by  his  rival. 
Placid'ia  having  discovered  the  double  treachery  of  JE'tius,  proclaimed 
him  a  traitor,  and  that  general  found  it  necessary  to  seek  shelter  in  Pan- 
nonia  with  the  Huns.  At'tila,  justly  called  "  the  scourge  of  God,"  was 
no.v  the  ruler  of  the  formidable  Hunnish  hordes:  he  extorted  vast 
sums,  as  the  price  of  his  forbearance,  from  the  Byzantine  empire.  On 
the  death  of  Theodosius  H.  he  threatened  war  against  Marcian  his 
successor,  the  nominal  husband  of  Pulcheria  ;  but  the  victories  of 
iE'tius  over  the  Franks  and  Vandals,  when  restored  to  Placid'ia's  fa- 
vor, induced  the  fierce  barbarian  to  turn  his  arms  against  the  western 
empire  (a.  d.  451).  He  had  an  additional  pretext,  through  the  malice 
of  the  princess  Honoria,  who  secretly  offered  him  her  hand,  to  revenge 
her  exclusion  from  power  ;  and  the  barbarian  monarch,  though  he  al- 
ready had  several  wives,  proclaimed  himself  her  champion.  When  the 
Huns  appeared  in  Gaul,  JE'tius  entered  into  an  alliance  with  ihe  Visi- 
goths, aided  by  whom  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  At'tila,  and  drove 
him  beyond  the  frontiers.  But  in  the  ensuing  spring  (a.  d.  452)  the 
Huns  poured  like  a  torrent  into  Italy,  and  laid  waste  the  peninsula. 
The  death  of  At'tila,  who  fell  a  victim  to  intemperance,  and  the  civil 
wars  between  his  followers,  delayed  the  utter  ruin  of  the  empire  ;  but 
the  murder  of  ^^tius  by  the  ungrateful  Valentinian,  and  the  unchecked 
ravages  of  the  barbarians,  rendered  all  the  provinces  miserable  and 
wretched.  Valentinian  himself  was  murdered  by  the  patrician  Max'- 
imus,  whose  wife  he  had  debauched  (a.  d.  455),  and  the  injured  hus- 
band assumed  the  imperial  purple. 

Max'imus  had  scarcely  been  three  months  upon  the  throne  when 
the  fleet  of  the  Vandals  appeared  in  the  Tiber.  His  subjects,  attributing 
this  new  calamity  to  his  supineness,  stoned  him  to  death ;  but  ere  a 
successor  could  be  chosen,  Gen'seric  marched  his  soldiers  into  the  de- 
fenceless city,  and  pillaged  everything  that  had  been  spared  by  the 
piety  or  mercy  of  Al'aric.  Many  thousands  of  the  unfortunate  citizens 
were  transported  as  slaves  into  Africa ;  but  their  condition  was  in  some 
degree  alleviated  by  the  generosity  of  Deogratias,  bishop  of  Carthage, 
who  sold  the  gold  and  silver  plate  of  his  churches  to  purchase  the  re 
demption  of  his  brethren. 

By  the  influence  of  Theod'oric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  Avitus,  a  Gaul 
of  noble  family,  was  installed  emperor  ;  but  he  was  soon  deposed  by 
Count  Ricimer,  the  principal  commander  of  the  barbarian  auxiliaries 
intrusted  with  the  defence  of  Italy.  He  did  not  long  survive  his  fall ; 
he  died  on  his  way  to  the  Alps,  as  he  was  about  to  seek  refuge  among 
the  Visigoths.  Majorian  received  the  degraded  sceptre  from  Ricimer, 
and  made  some  vigorous  efforts  to  remedy  the  disorders  of  the  state. 
His  virtues  were  not  appreciated  by  his  subjects.  He  was  dethroned 
by  a  licentious  soldiery  (a.  d.  461),  and  died  in  a  few  days  after. 

Ricimer  chose  one  of  his  own  creatures,  Severus,  to  be  nominal  t-m- 
peror,  retaining  all  the  power  of  the  state  in  his  own  hands  ;  but  the 
superior  strength  of  the  Vandals  compelled  him  to  have  recourse  to  the 
court  of  Constantinople  for  aid,  and  to  off'er  the  nomir  ation  of  a  sov- 
ereign for  the  west  to  Loo,  the  successor  of  Marcian.  Leo  appointed 
the  patrician  Anthemius  to  this  high  but  dangerous  station,  and  sent  a 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  317 

laige  armament  against  the  Vandals  in  Africa.  The  imperial  forces 
were  completely  defeated,  and  when  the  shattered  relics  of  the  arma- 
ment returned  to  Constantinople,  Ricinicr  deposed  Athemius,  put  him 
to  death,  and  elevated  Olyb'rius  to  the  throne  (a.  d.  472).  Both  Rici- 
mer  and  Olyb'rius  died  within  a  few  months  :  ai-d  Leo,  after  some  de- 
lay, appointed  Julius  Nepos  his  colleague. 

Glycerins,  an  obscure  soldier,  trusting  to  the  aid  of  the  Burgundians, 
attempted  to  dispute  the  empire  with  Nepos  ;  but  finding  his  strength 
inadequate  to  the  contest,  he  resigned  the  sceptre  for  the  crosier,  and 
became  bishop  of  Salona.  Nepos  himself  was  soon  driven  from  the 
throne  by  Ores'tes,  the  successor  of  Ricimer  in  the  command  of  the 
barbarian  mercenaries.  He  fled  into  Dalmatia,  where  he  was  assassi- 
nated by  his  old  rival  Glycerins. 

Ores'tes  gave  the  throne  to  his  son  Rom'ulus  MomiFlus,  whom  he 
dignified  with  the  title  of  Augus'tus,  or,  as  he  is  more  frequently  called, 
Augus'tulus.  Odoacer,  the  leader  of  the  German  tribes  in  the  Roman 
pay,  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  take  arms  against  the  usurper. 
Ores'tes  was  made  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  Augus'tulus  was  sent 
into  captivity,  but  was  allowed  a  pension  for  his  support ;  and  the  con- 
queror, abolishing  the  name  and  office  of  emperor,  took  the  title  of  king 
of  Italy  (a.  d.  476).  The  Ostrogoths  finally  conquered  Italy  (a.  d. 
492),  deposed  Odoacer,  and  founded  a  new  empire. 

During  this  calamitous  period  Christianity  was  sullied  by  the  admix- 
ture of  various  superstitions,  borrowed  from  ancient  paganism.  The 
Gnostics  attempted  to  combine  the  truths  of  the  gospel  with  the  wild 
dreams  of  oriental  philosophy,  and  they  prepared  medals  with  mystic 
devices,  which  were  worn  as  charms  or  amulets,  in  the  belief  that  they 
would  protect  men  from  danger  and  disease. 


318  ANCIENT    HIS  TO  K,  If 


CHAPTER  XVIIl. 

INDIA. 

\^  HEN  India  became  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the  ccr-quests  of  Alex- 
ander, its  inhabitants  were  found  in  very  nearly  the  sar-je  state  of  civil- 
ization as  the  Hindoos  of  the  present  day  ;  we  raav  therefore  fairly 
conclude  that  this  civilized  state  must  have  iDcen  several  hundred  years 
in  existence,  else  it  could  not  have  been  so  complete  in  its  parts  and  so 
permanent  in  its  influence.  As  Alexander's  invasion  took  place  about 
the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  we  may  regard  it  as  pretty 
certain  that  the  civilization  of  India  reaches  back  to  at  least  one  thou- 
sand years  before  Christ,  but  how  much  further  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine with  certainty.  From  the  institution  of  caste,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  Hindoos  are  of  a  mixed  origin,  for  the  diflference  between  the 
castes  is  so  very  great  that  we  are  almost  obliged  to  admit  a  corre- 
sponding difference  of  original  extraction.  "  I  could  at  all  times,  and 
in  every  part  of  India,"  says  Major  Bevan,  "  distinguish  a  Brahmin  by 
his  complexion  and  peculiar  features."  All  the  Hindoo  traditions  unite 
in  representing  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ganges  as  the  cradle  of  their 
race  ;  their  most  ancient  records  intimate  that  the  first  kingdoms  in  this 
sacred  spot  were  founded  by  persons  who  came  from  the  north,  and 
the  existing  series  of  temples  and  monuments,  both  above  and  below 
groimd,  is  a  species  of  chronicle  of  the  progressive  extension  of  an  im- 
migrating and  highly-civilized  race  from  north  to  south.  This  is  the 
very  reverse  of  what  we  find  to  have  occurred  in  Egypt,  where  the 
social  and  religious  advance  was  from  south  to  north. 

The  Brahmins  in  India,  like  the  priests  in  Egypt,  exercised  an  in- 
direct sovereignty  over  the  other  classes  of  society  ;  the  kings,  in  both 
countries,  were  selected  from  the  warrior  caste,  but  the  priestly  caste 
restrained  the  power  of  the  sovereign  by  religious  enactments  and  in- 
stitutions which  brought  both  public  and  private  affairs  under  their  cog- 
nifance.  How  this  influence  was  obtained  is  merely  matter  of  conjec- 
tuie,  but  it  certainly  existed  before  the  appearance  of  the  two  great  In- 
dian epics,  the  Ramayana  and  the  Maha-bharata,  both  of  which  contain 
several  instances  of  the  awful  veneration  in  which  the  Brahmins  were 
held  by  the  kings  themselves.  In  the  interesting  drama,  "  The  Toy 
Cart,"  translated  by  Professor  Wilson,  we  find  a  notice  of  a  strange 
revolution  effected  in  the  government  of  Ujayin  (Oogein)  by  Brahmini- 
cal  intrigue.  The  drama  itself  was  written  before  the  Christian  era, 
but  the  incideats  on  which  it  is  founded  are  of  much  earlier  date  ;  it  de 
scribes  how  the  Brahmins,  offended  by  their  sovereign  Palaka's  public 
disregard  of  them,  brought  about  a  change  in  the  government,  employ- 
ing a  hermit  and  a  cow-boy  as  their  instruments.     Aryaka,  the  cow 


INDIA.  319 

herd,  is  chosen  king,  and  his  accession  is  thus  announced  to  a  Bral> 
min  wiiom  Palaka  had  condemned  to  death  : — 

"  And  Brahmin,  I  inform  you,  that  the  king, 
The  unjust  Pdlaka,  has  fallen  a  victim, 
Here  in  the  place  of  sacrifice,  to  one 
Who  has  avenged  his  wrongs  and  thine ;  to  Arj'aKa, 
Who  ready  homage  pays  to  birth  and  virtue." 

The  conchision  of  the  drama  still  more  forcibly  shows  the  influence  of 
the  Brahmins,  for  reverence  to  their  caste  is  invoked  as  one  of  the 
chief  blessings  of  heaven  : — 

"  FuU-uddered  be  the  kine,  the  soil  be  fertile  ; 
May  copious  showers  descend,  and  balmy  gales 
Breathe  health  and  happiness  on  all  mankind; 
From  pain  be  every  living  creature  free. 
And  reverence  on  the  pious  Brahmin  wait ; 
And  may  all  monarchs,  prosperous  and  just. 
Humble  their  foes  and  guard  the  world  in  peace." 

It  appears  that  there  were  two  great  dynasties  in  India  proper ;  that 
is,  north  of  the  Krishna  river,  and  excluding  the  Dec'can ;  the  Solai 
race  was  established  at  Ayad'da,  the  modern  Oude ;  the  Lunar  race 
fixed  itself  more  to  the  west,  in  the  country  round  Delhi.  The  war  be- 
tween the  Pan'doos  and  Kooroos,  both  descended  from  the  Lunar  race, 
was  to  the  Indians  what  the  Trojan  war  was  to  the  Greeks,  by  its  in- 
fluence upon  their  poetry,  literature,  and  arts.  It  forms  the  subject  of 
the  great  Hindoo  epic,  the  "  Maha-bharata"  (great  war),  which  contains 
one  hundred  thousand  slokas,  or  distichs.  How  far  the  events  of  this 
war  are  to  be  regarded  as  historical,  would  be  an  inquiry  more  curious 
than  useful ;  but  it  seems  probable  that,  like  the  Trojan  war,  it  was 
not  less  fatal  to  the  victors  than  the  vanquished,  for  a  new  dynasty 
arose  at  Magad'ha,  which  gradually  acquired  the  supremacy  of  India. 

Th^  kingdom  of  Magad'ha  is  identified  with  the  province  of  Behar 
and  its  capital  was  Paliboth'ra,  which  stood  in  or  near  the  modern  city 
of  Patau.     After  the   retreat  of  Alexander  from   India,  the   throne  of 
Paliboth'ra  was  occupied  by  a  celebrated    conqueror,  known   to   the 
Greeks  by  the  name  of  Sandracop'tus  or  Sandracot'tus,  who  has  been 
completely  identified  with  the  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  of  the   Hindoo  poets 
The  Greek  and  Hindoo  writers  concur  in  the  name,  in  the  private  his 
tory,  in  the  political  elevation,  and  in  the  nation  and  capital  of  an  In 
dian  king,  nearly  if  not  exactly  contemporary  with  Alexander  ;  such  an 
approximation  could  not  possibly  be  the  work  of  accident,  and  we  may 
therefore  regard  this  monarch's  reign  as  historical. 

Combining  and  comparing  the  different  accounts  given  of  Chan'dra- 
Gup'ta  it  appears  that  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  kingdom  of 
Magad'ha  was  ruled  by  a  monarch  named  Mahapad'ma  Nan'da.  He 
was  a  powerful  and  ambitious  prince,  but  cruel  and  avaricious,  by  which 
defects,  as  well  as  by  his  inferiority  of  birth,  he  probably  provoked  the 
hostility  of  the  Brahmins.  By  one  wife  he  had  eight  sons,  who,  with 
their  father,  were  called  the  nine  Nan'das  ;  and  by  a  wife  of  low  ex- 
traction he  had  according  to  tradition,  a  son  called  Chan'dra-Gup'ta.  I 
's,  however,  by  no  means  certain  that  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  was  the  son  of 


320  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Nan'da,  but  from  uniform  testimony  he  appears  to  have  been  closely  le- 
lated  to  the  royal  family  by  his  father's  side,  though  his  mother  was  ol 
a  very  inferior  caste. 

But  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  this  prince,  it  is  very 
likely  that  he  was  made  the  instrument  of  the  rebellious  spirit  of  the 
Brahmins,  who,  having  effected  the  destruction  of  Nan'da  and  his  sons, 
raised  Chan'dra-Gup'ta,  while  yet  a  youth,  to  the  throne.  In  the  drama 
Mudra  Nahshasa,  which  represents  the  various  artifices  employed  by 
the  Brahmin  Chanak'ya  to  establish  the  throne  of  Chan'dra-Gup'ta, 
Chanak'ya  declares  that  it  was  he  Avho  overthrew  tlie  Nan'das : — 

"  'T  is  known  to  an  the  world 
I  vowed  the  death  of  Nanda,  and  I  slew  him  .... 
The  fires  of  my  wrath  alone  expire 
Like  the  fierce  conflagration  of  a  forest. 
From  lack  from  fuel — not  for  weariness. 
The  flames  of  my  just  anger  have  consumed 
The  branding  ornaments  of  Nanda's  stem. 
Abandoned  by  the  frightened  priests  and  people, 
They  have  enveloped  in  a  shower  of  ashes 
The  blighted  tree  of  his  ambitious  councils, 
And  they  have  overcast  with  sorro^Y-clouds 
The  smiling  heavens  of  those  moon-like  looks 
That  shed  the  light  of  love  upon  my  foes." 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  elevation  of  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  to  the  throne 
was  owing  to  the  Brahmins ;  they  were,  however,  aided  by  a  prince 
from  the  north  of  India,  Pawats'wara,  to  Avhom  they  promised  an  ac- 
cession of  territory  as  the  reward  of  his  alliance.  The  execution  of 
this  treaty  was  evaded  by  the  assassination  of  the  mountain-prince ; 
his  son,  Malayaketu,  led  a  mingled  host  against  Magad'ha  to  avenge  his 
father's  death  :  among  his  troops  we  find  the  Gavanas,  the  Lakas,  or 
Lacse,  and  the  Kambojas,  or  people  of  Arachosia,  the  northeastern 
province  of  Persia.  The  failure  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  in  his  attempt 
to  extend  his  power  in  India,  and  his  relinquishinent  of  territory,  may 
be  connected  with  the  discomfiture  and  retreat  of  Malayaketu,  as  nar- 
rated in  the  drama,  although  it  is  improbable  that  the  Syrian  monarch 
and  the  king  of  Magad'ha  ever  came  into  direct  collision.  The  retreat 
of  Malayaketu  was  occasioned  by  jealousies  and  quarrels  among  the 
confederates ;  he  returned,  baffled  and  humbled,  to  his  own  country 
Chan'dra-Gup'ta's  power  was  now  so  firmly  established  that  Seleucus 
Nicator  relinquished  to  him  all  the  country  beyond  the  Indus,  receiving 
fifty  elephants  in  exchange  ;  he  also  formed  a  matrimonial  alliance  with 
the  Hindoo  prince,  and  sent  Megasthenes  as  an  ambassador  to  his 
court.  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  reigned  twenty-four  years,  and  left  the  kingdom 
to  his  son. 

There  is  a  complete  blank  in  Indian  history  from  the  death  of  Chan'- 
dra-Gup'ta to  the  accession  of  Vicramadit'ya,  Avho  is  called  the  sover- 
eign of  all  India.  He  ruled  with  such  extraordinary  success  that  his 
reign  forms  an  important  era  in  history,  commencing  a.  d.  258,  according 
to  one  account,  and  ten  years  later,  according  to  another.  Toward  the 
close  of  his  reign  he  was  conquered  by  Shapour,  the  second  Persian 
monarch  of  the  Sassanian  d}Tiasty,  and  the  empire  of  India  became 


INDIA.  321 

«ubject«to  that  of  Persia.  The  Hindoo  accounts  of  Vicramadit'ya  are 
intermingled  with  the  most  extravagant  fables,  and  all  that  we  can  learn 
from  them  with  certainty  is,  that  this  prince  was  a  sedulous  upholder 
of  the  influence  of  the  Brahmins. 

From  this  period  to  the  Mohammedan  invasion,  India  appears  to  have 
been  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  independent  states,  in  which  the 
rajahs  were  completely  under  the  influence  of  the  Brahmins.  As  the 
royal  power  declined,  the  rules  of  caste,  on  which  the  influence  of  the 
hereditary  priesthood  depended,  were  rendered  more  rigid  and  severe. 
The  caste  of  the  Brahmins  arrogated  to  itself  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  studying  and  expounding  the  Vedas,  and  as  these  are  the  source  of 
all  Hindoo  learning,  whether  religious  or  scientific,  the  priesthood  thus 
obtained  a  monopoly  of  knowledge.  Brahmins  alone  could  exercise 
the  medical  art,  for  sickness  being  considered  as  the  punishment  of 
transgression,  it  is  remedied  only  by  penances  and  religious  ceremonies  • 
they  alone  had  the  right  to  interpret  the  laws,  to  ofier  sacrifices,  and  to 
give  counsel  to  the  sovereign. 

The  Kshatriya  or  warrior  caste,  is  generally  regarded  as  extinct ;  it 
was  naturally  viewed  with  great  jealousy  by  the  Brahmins,  and  the  in- 
stitutions imposed  upon  it  by  them,  were  little  calculated  to  foster  a  war- 
like spirit.  Hence  Hindoostan  has  so  frequently  and  so  easily  become 
the  prey  of  foreign  conquerors,  for  the  priestly  caste  made  it  the  chie-f 
object  of  their  policy  to  humiliate  and  weaken  the  caste  of  warriors. 

The  Vaisy'a  caste  iacludes  the  higher  industrial  classes,  and  was 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  numerous.  The  Sddras  formed  the  lowest 
class,  and  were  slaves  to  the  rest.  In  p«ocess  of  time,  the  number  of 
mixed  castes  was  greatly  multiplied,  and  the  determination  of  their  re- 
lations to  each  other  became  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 

At  a  very  early  but  uncertain  period,  the  religious  institutions  of  the 
Brahmins  were  opposed  by  a  reformer  named  Bud'dha,  who  rejected 
the  Vedas,  bloody  sacrifices,  and  the  distinction  of  castes.  His  follow- 
ers, called  Buddhists,  must  have  been  both  numerous  and  powerful  at  a 
very  remote  age,  for  a  greater  number  of  the  oltlest  rock-temples  are 
dedicated  to  him.  From  the  Christian  writers  oi  ihe  seeoiid  century  it 
is  evident  that  in  their  day  the  religion  of  Bud'dha  was  very  prevalent 
in  India,  and  in  the  drama  of  the  Toy-Cart,  Bud'dha  observances  Lie 
described  with  great  accuracy,  and  the  members  of  th<^.  sect  represented 
in  a  flourishing  condition,  for  they  are  not  only  tolerated  but  publicly 
recognised.  One  of  the  characters  in  the  pl-jy  is  a  Bud'diia  ascetic, 
and  he  describes  his  creed  ia  the  following  hyiim ; — 

"  Be  virtue,  friends,  your  only  store, 
And  restless  appetite  restrain, 
Beat  meditatioa's  drum,  and  sore 

Your  watch  against  each  sense  maintain  j 
The  thief  that  still  in  ambush  lies. 
To  make  devotion's  wsallh  his  piizc. 

"  Cast  the  five  senses  all  away 

That  trium:>h  o'er  the  virtnocs  -wiil, 
The  pride  of  self-importance  slay. 
And  isjnoraace  remorseless  kiil; 
So  shall  you  ssiie  ihe  body  gnard, 
And  Heaven  snail  be  your  last  rewardo 
21 


322  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

"  Why  shave  the  head  and  mow  the  chin,  • 

While  bustling  follies  choke  th-e  breast  ? 
Apply  the  knife  to  parts  within, 

And  heed  not  how  deformed  the  rest ; 
The  heart  of  pxide  and  passion  weed, 
And  then  the  man  is  pure  indeed." 

At  some  uncertain  period,  but  probably  not  much  later  tiiAn  the  twelfth 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  nor  earlier  than  the  fourth,  the  Buddhists 
were  expelled  from  India  by  the  Brahmins  ;  they  sought  shelter  in  Cey- 
lon, in  the  mountains  of  the  north,  in  the  countries  beyond  the  Ganges, 
in  Tartary,  and  in  China,  where  their  religion  had  been  previously 
preached  by  active  missionaries.  By  the  persecution  of  the  Buddhists 
in  their  native  country,  a  great  portion  of  the  literature  of  India  has 
been  lost,  and  in  particular,  according  to  Professor  Wilson,  all  the  an 
cient  literature  of  the  people  that  speak  the  Tamul  language.  But  in 
the  countries  surrounding  India,  Buddhism  still  prevails  ;  it  is  indeed 
the  most  widely  extended  of  any  religion,  being  professed  by  not  less 
than  two  hundred  millions  of  people.  Its  success  is  mainly  owing  to 
the  excellent  organization  of  its  hierarchy,  and  the  solemnity  of  its  cer- 
emonies. Celibacy  is  enjoined  on  its  priesthood,  and  thus  a  monastic 
corporation  is  formed,  which  in  Tibet  possesses  the  sovereign  power, 
and  in  the  other  countries  enjoys  considerable  political  influence. 

The  Buddhists  were  not  the  only  reformers  that  opposed  the  Brah- 
mins ;  they  were  followed  by  the  Jains,  who  cut  down  more  extensively 
the  vast  forest  of  fraud  and  superstition.  The  rise  of  Jainism  was  con- 
temporary with  the  decline  of  Buddhism  in  Hindoostan.  Both  affect  to 
be  new  doctrines  produced  by  a  fresh  incarnation  of  Vislinoo,  the  con- 
servating  princij)le  of  the  Hindoo  Triad. 

The  ancient  trade  of  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  with  India  has 
been  already  noticed  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  work  ;  but  Indian  com- 
merce did  not  excite  much  attention  in  the  western  world  until  the  first 
Ptolemy  ascended  the  throne  of  Egypt,  and  prepared  to  realize  the  vast 
projects  of  his  master,  Alexander  the  Great.  His  successor,  Ptolemv 
PhiJadelphus,  attempted  to  connect  the  Red  sea  with  the  Mediterranean, 
by  cutting  a  canal  from  Arsinoe  (Suez)  to  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the 
Nile.  This  was  noc  found  so  useful  as  the  king  anticipated ;  he  there- 
fore built  a  cily  lov/er  down  the  Red  sea,  nearly  under  the  Tropic, 
called  Bereiiico,  wUch  became  the  staple  of  the  trade  with  India. 
Goods  vrere  transported  from  Berenice  to  Cop'tos  on  the  Nile,  and 
thence  floated  down  the  river  to  Alexandria.  The  Egyptian  vessels 
sailed  from  Boreuice  either  to  the  mouths  of  the  Indus  or  to  the  Mala 
bar  coast ;  they  Mere  too  small  to  venture  directly  out  to  sea,  and  there- 
fore crept  timidly  along  the  shores.  The  Persians  had  an  insuperable 
aversion  to  maritime  affairs,  else  they  might  have  opened  the  same  trade 
by  a  shorter  and  safer  course  of  navigation  through  the  Persian  gulf. 
They  procured  Indian  commodities  overland  from  the  banks  of  the  In- 
dus, and  the  northern  provinces  were  supplied  by  the  caravans  which 
travelled  from  the  Indus  to  the  Oxus,  and  sent  their  goods  down  that 
river  into  the  Caspian  sea. 

After  Egypt  had  been  some  time  subject  to  the  Romans,  the  discovery 
©f  the  regular  shifting  of  the  periodical  winds  or  monsoons  brought  In 


INDIA.  sas 

dia  nearer  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  Hippalus,  the  commander  of  a  ship 
engaged  in  the  Indian  trade,  about  eighty  years  after  Egypt  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Roman  empire,  stretched  boldly  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Arabian  g\ilf  across  the  ocean,  and  was  wafted  by  the  western  monsoon 
to  Musius  on  the  Malabar  coast,  somewhere  between  Goa  and  Tel- 
licherry.  From  this  time  the  Indian  trade  rapidly  increased,  and  the 
merchants  of  Alexandria  supplied  Europe  with  spices,  and  aromatics, 
precious  stones,  pearls,  silk,  and  cotton  cloths. 

Taprobane  or  the  island  of  Ceylon,  was  not  known  by  name  to  Eu- 
ropeans before  the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  Egyptians  seem 
not  to  have  visited  it  or  the  Coromandel  coast,  until  after  the  discovery  of 
the  periodicity  of  the  monsoons,  but  so  early  as  the  reign  of  the  empe- 
ror Claudius  an  ambassador  was  sent  from  the  island  to  Rome.  It  sub- 
sequently became  a  great  mart  of  trade  for  the  commodities  produced  in 
the  countries  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  probably  even  for  the  productions 
of  China. 

Little  change  was  made  in  the  commercial  routes  of  communication 
with  India  from  the  time  of  the  Romans,  until  the  discovery  of  the  pas- 
sage round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Vasco  de  Gama.  The  ancients 
were  contented  with  traffic,  and  after  the  time  of  Alexander  made  no 
efforts  to  establish  colonies  in  Hindoostan  ;  hence  their  accoimts  of  the 
country  and  its  inhabitants  are  very  loose  and  indefinite.  But  even 
from  these  vague  accounts  we  find  that  the  social  institutions  of  the 
Hindoos  have  scarcely  been  altered  by  the  many  changes  of  realm  and 
chances  of  time  which  have  since  occurred  ;  and  hence  we  may  con- 
clude, that  its  system  of  civilization,  so  original  and  so  stereotype  in  its 
character,  belongs  to  an  age  of  very  remote  antiqiiity,  and  that  there  is 
no  improbability  in  its  having  been  connected  with  that  of  ancient 
Egypt. 


QUESTIONS 


ON 


ANCIENT    HISTORY, 


TO    ACCOMPAVT 


A  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY, 


BY    W.    C.    TAYLOR. 


COMPILED    BY    REV.    L.L.    SMITH 


NEW-YOKK  : 

I)  .    A  P  P  L  E  T  O  N    A:     C  O  M  P  A  N  Y 

3  4  G    &    .3  4  8    BROADWAY. 
M.DCCC.LIV. 


QUESTIONS 


ON 


ANCIENT      HISTORY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

EGYPT. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1  The  first  country  in  which  a  government 

was  established  ? 

S    How    did  civilization  everywhere  com- 
mence ? 

3    What  has  Egypt  been  always  called? 

4.  How  did  civilization  advance  along  the 

Nile? 

5.  Wliere  does  the  Nile  enter  Egypt  ? 

6.  Dimensions  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ? 

7.  How  was  Egypt  divided  ? 

8.  On  what  does  its  fertility  depend  ? 

9    By  what  are  these  inundations  caused? 

10.  The   appearance  of  the   Nile    early   in 

August  ? 

11.  When  do  the  waters  subside  ? 

12.  The  eastern  side  of  the  valley,  describe. 
1.3.  The  western  side. 

14.  Benefit  of  this  ridge 

15.  Mention  some  of  the  interesting  monu- 

ments of  Upper  Egypt. 

16.  What  is  said  of  lake  Moeris  ? 

17.  Where  was  the  labyrinth? 

18.  The  capital  of  Middle  Egj^t  ? 

19.  What  is  said  of  it? 

20.  The   most    remarkable   monuments    of 

Middle  Egypt  ? 

21.  What  is  said  of  Lower  Egypt  ? 

22.  Where  did  the  civilized  portion  of  the 

Egyptians  dwell  ? 

23.  The  great  object  of  sacerdotal  and  royal 

policy  ? 

24.  Why  was  every  shepherd  regarded  as  an 

abomination  to  the  Egyptians  ? 

Sec.  2. — Political  and  Social  Condition  of 
ike  Egyptians, 

1.  Colour  of  the  Egyptians  ? 

2  What  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  re- 

specting them  ? 
3.  The  habits  and  manners  of  the  people  in 
the  /iJbrent  districts? 


4.  The  diiTerent  castes  among  them,  and 

their  relative  rank? 

5.  Tlie  central  point  of  every  colony  ? 

6.  What  were  names? 

7.  What  is  said  of  them  ? 

8.  Who  were  the  Hyksos  ? 

9.  When   did   Egypt  become  united  undtti 

one  sovereign  ? 

10.  What  is  said  of  the  priestly  caste  ? 

11.  What  is  said  of  the  high-priests  ? 

12.  How  was  their  influence  strengthened? 

13.  Location  of  the  warrior  caste  ? 

14.  The  most  important  division  of  an  Eg)-{»- 

tian  army  ? 

15.  Describe  their  chariots  ? 

16.  How  were   nations   distinguished    froia 

each  other? 

17.  The    national    weapon    of    the     Egyp- 

tians ? 

18.  Their  heavy  arms  ? 

19.  How  were  their  light  troops  armed  ? 

20.  How    were    their    soldiers    levied   aud 

drilled  ? 

21.  How  were  their  captives  treated? 

22.  What  is  said  of  their  religion  and  govern 

ment  ? 

23.  The  authority  of  their  priests  ? 

24.  The  general    idea   that    peiTaded   thoii 

entire  religious  system  ? 

25.  The  result  of  this  ? 

26.  What  is  said  of  astrology  ? 

27.  The  Egyptian  creeds  with  reference  tc 

the  future  ? 

28.  Origin  of  the  practice  of  embalming? 

29.  What  important  trial  was  much  dreaded 

by  every  Egyptian  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  trades  and  professions  ? 

31.  The  probable  cause  of  this? 

32.  Their  favourite  amusements? 

33.  Their  posture  at  table  ? 

34.  The  respect  i)uid  to   women,  rank,  ani 

age? 

35.  The  principal  trees  of  Egj'pt  ? 

36.  Their  use  of  wine  ? 

37.  Their  most  remarkable  vegetables? 

38.  Their  domestic  animais  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON 


39    The  use  made  of  the  skhi  of  the  hippo- 
potamus? 
40.  How  were  the  eggs  of  poultry  hatched  ? 

Sec.  3. — History  of  Esi/ptfro/n  the  earliest 
Period  to  the  Accession  of  Psammetichus. 

1.  The  most  ancient  of  the  states  of  Egypt  ? 

2.  Tiie  most  powerful  ? 

3.  What  iy  said  of  Memphis  ? 

4.  When  did  the  Hyksos  invade  Egypt  ? 

5.  The  policy  of  Pharaoh   in  locating  the 

colony   of  the   Israelites   in    the    laud 
of  Go.-fhcn  ? 

6  Who  was  the  Pharaoh  that  tyrannized 

over  them  ? 

7  What  task  did  he  impose  upon  them  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  labour  imposed  on 

them  of  making  bricks  ? 
9    How  did  Pharaoh  attempt  to  check  their 
increase  ? 
10    Why  did  Moses  quit  Egypt  ? 
H .  How  was  Pharaoh  punished  by  the  God 
of  Israel  ? 

19  How  was  his  army  destroyed  ? 
13    The  year  of  this  calamity? 

14.  Who  was  the   Pharaoh   that    received 
Joseph  ? 

15  When  was  glass  first  used  ? 

16  The  results  to  the  Hyksos  of  the  destruc- 

tion of  the  Egyptian  army  in  the  Red 
Sea? 

17.  Wiio  was  Danaus  of  the  Greeks  ? 

18.  In  honour  of  whom  was  the  vocal  statue 

of  Memnon  erected  ? 

19.  Who  were  the  Raraeses? 

20  With  what  calamities  was  Egypt  afflicted 

during  the  reign  of  Amenoph  IV.  ? 
S'i .  Lxcesses  of  tlie  Hyltsos  ? 

22.  The  most  celebrated  of  the    Egyptian 

monarchs  ? 

23.  His  exploits  ? 

24.  Extent  of  his  conquests,  and  how  proved  ? 

25.  By  what  name  is  he  best  known  ? 

26.  Extent  of  Shishak's  empire  ? 

27.  Who  subsequently  subjugated  Egypt  ? 

28.  Conduct  of  Sefhos  ? 

29.  How  did  he  oppose  Sennacherib? 

30.  Who  once  more  united  all  Egypt  under 

a  single  monarchy? 

31.  His  treatment  of  the  warrior  caste,  and 

their  conduct  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  Egypt  from  the  Reign 
of  Psammetichas  to  its  Suhjiigation  by 
Cambyses. 

1.  What  change  was  made  in  the  ancient 
policy  of  Egypt  at  the  accession  of 
Psammetichus? 

2    The  great  object  of  his  policy  ^ 

3.  His  son  and  successor  ? 

4.  What  enterprise  did  he  undertake,  and 

who  completed  it  ? 
5    What  circumstance  alarmed  him  ? 


6.  Who  attempted  to  check  him,  and  with 

what  success? 

7.  Who  expelled  his  garrison  from  Circe- 

si  um  ? 

8.  Conquest  of  Nebuchadnezzar? 

9.  Jeremiah's  prophetic  description  of  this 

battle  ? 

10.  What  important  discovery  did  his  fleet 

make  ? 

11.  How  long  absent  was  it? 

12.  What  remarkable  incident  occurred  dur- 

ing the  reign  of  his  son  ? 

13.  What  act  of  perfidy  did  Apries  commit  T 

14.  The  circumstances  under  which  he  was 

dethroned  ? 

15.  Policy  of  Amasis,  his  successor'? 

16.  His  subsequent  misfortiuies  ? 

17.  Fate  of  Psammenitus,  his  son? 

18.  Conduct  of  Cambyses  ? 

19.  Prophecy  of  Ezekiel  ? 

Sec.  5. — Egyptian  Manufactures  and 
Commerce. 

1.  What  do  we  learn  from  the  monuments 

of  the  Egj'ptians? 

2.  What  branches  of  manufacture  were  at- 

tended to  by  them  ? 
3    The  perfection  they  attained? 

4.  Their  implements  of  metal? 

5.  Their  pottery  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  Thebaid  ? 

7.  What   productions  were    brought  from 

Ethiopia  ? 

8.  From  Arabia,  and  India  ? 

9.  Their  exports  ? 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  ETHIOPIANS. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. — Natural 
History. 

1.  What  two  races  possessed  the  districts 

above  the  Nile? 

2.  What  h  said  of  the  civilized  people  of 

Ethiopia? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  monuments  of  the 

Nubian  valley? 

4.  Of  the  island  of  Mcroe  ? 

5.  Of  its  advantages  for  trade  with  India  ? 

6.  What   singular    animal   is   found  in  ita 

neighbourhood  ? 

7.  What  large  animal  is  also  found  there  ? 

Sec.  2. — History  of  the  Ethiopians. 

1.  What    is   said  of  the  early   history   ol 

MeroS  ? 

2.  Of  its  monuments  ? 

3.  What  Assyrian  heroine  attempted  the 

conquest  of  Ethiopia  ? 

4.  What  evidence  have  wo  of  the  Ethio- 

pians' being  a  powerful  nation  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


5.  The   Immediate  cause   of  the  captivity 

of  the  tea  tribes  ? 

6.  Who  was  Sevechus  ? 

7.  Wiiat  colonists  emigrated  to  Etliiopia  in 

the  roivu  of  Fsainmotichus? 

8.  Of  what  advantage  wore  they  to  the 

Ethiopians? 

9.  Of  what  folly  was  Cambyses  guilty,  in 

his  invasion  of  Ethiopia  ? 

10.  Sufferings  of  his  soldiers? 

11.  How  was  the  king  of  Ethiopia  elected? 

12.  Strange  custom  of  the  electors? 

13.  Who  resisted  it,  and  with  what  success? 

14.  Which  of  the  queens  of  Ethiopia  made 

war  against  Augustus  CtBsar  ? 

15.  What  religion  was  prevalent  at  Moroe? 

6ec.  3. — Arts,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures 
of  Meroe. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  pyramids  of  Meroe  ? 

2.  The  most  striking  proof  of  the  progress 

of  the  Ethiopians  in  the  art  of  building? 

3.  Commerce  and  manufactures  of  Meroe  ? 

4.  To  what  did  it  owe  its  greatness  ? 

5.  The  causes  of  its  ruin  ? 

6.  What  accelerated  it  ? 


CHAPTER  III. 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA. 

3ec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. — Natural 
History. 

1.  How  was  Babylonia  situated? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  Tigris  ? 

3.  The  first  habitation  of  the  descendants 

of  Noah  ? 

4.  Situation  of  Assyria  ? 

5.  Fertility  of  Babylonia  ? 

6    li»  vegetable  productions  ? 

7.  Why  was  commerce  neglected  by  the 

Bibylonians? 
9.  What  is  said  of  their  bricks? 
1.  ThtVj  substitute  for  mortar  ? 
>1l    Nature  of  it? 

Skc.  2    -Political  and  Social  Condition  of 
the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 

1.  Government  of  Assyria  ? 

2.  Power  and  state  of  the  king? 

3.  Their  priesthood,  and  religion  ? 

4.  Name  of  their  supreme  deity  ? 

5.  What  has  rendered  the  Assyrian  mytho- 

logy obscure  ? 

6.  The   mo^t   niarked    attributes   of    their 

idolatry  ? 

7.  Form  of  their  idols  ? 

8    The  condition  of  woman  in  Babylonia  ? 
9.  How  were  they  married  ? 

10.  The  natural  results  of  this  system? 

11.  How  aggravated  ? 

12.  Their  progress  in  the  mechanical  arts, 

and  in  mathematical  science  ? 


13.  Character  of  their  language  ? 

14.  Materials  on  which  they  wrote  ^ 

Sec.  3. — History  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Bal)ylonians. 

Greek  account  of  Assyrian  history  ? 

What  is  said  of  Nimrod  ? 

When  was  the  Assyrian  empire  founded.l 

Its  capital  ? 

Nimrod's  principal  queen  ? 

Why  is  it  sometimes  said  that  she 
founded  Babylon  ? 

Her  conquests  ? 

Character  and  conduct  of  her  successors " 

Give  some  account  of  Pal. 

Of  Tiglath-pul-assur 

Of  Shalman-assur. 

Of  Sanherib  or  Sennacherib. 

Of  Sardanapalus. 

His  dreadful  end. 

Who  wore  the  Kasdira  or  Chaldeans  ? 

Testimony  of  Isaiah  respecting  them? 

Why  is  the  reign  of  Nabonassar  a  re- 
markable era  in  history  ? 

What  Egyptian  monarch  invaded  Assy- 
ria, and  with  what  success  ? 

Who  was  Nitociii-i  ? 

Of  what  opportunity  did  the  Jews  avaii 
themselves  to  assert  their  indepen- 
dence ? 

How  did  they  suffer  for  their  revolt  ? 

Why  did  they  a  second  time  revolt  ? 

How  were  they  then  punished  ? 

Of  what  folly  was  Nebuchadnezzar  guilty 
on  his  j-eturn  ? 

What  befell  him  at  th'o  close  of  his  reign  ? 

By  what  people  was  the  Babylonian 
empire  overthrown  ? 

Meaning  of  the  name  Bolshozzar  ? 

Works  of  the  queen-mother  Nitocris  ? 

Conduct  of  Belshazzar  ? 

How  did  Cyrus  enter  Babylon  ? 

Fate  of  Belshazzar  ? 

Date  of  the  fall  of  Babylon  ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 
.4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 


21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32, 


Sec.  4. — Description  of  Nineveh  and 
Babylon. 

1.  Nineveh,  why  so  named  ? 

2.  Its  situation  ? 

3.  Its  form  and  dimensions  ? 

4.  Why  so  large  ? 

5.  Its  wall  and  towers  ? 

6.  What  is  it  now  ? 

7.  Form  and  dimensions  of  Babylon  ? 

8.  What  iy  said  of  its  siai-d.  ied  bricks  ' 

9.  Dimensions  of  its  walls  ? 

10.  Describe  the  city. 

11.  In  what  two  ways  were  the  banks  o|. 

the  Euphrates  connected  ? 

12.  Size  of  the  bridge? 

13.  Describe  the  temple  of  Belus. 

14.  Describe  the  hanging  gardens 


QUESTIONS    ON 


15.  PuriK*;e  of  Alexander  with  reference  to 
Babylon  ? 
What  is  it  now  ? 
Prophecy  of  Isaiah  ? 

Sec.   5. — Coinmrrcn   and  Manufactures  of 
the  Bahylonians. 

The  manufactures  of  Babylon  ? 

What  art  was  carried  to  great  perfection  ? 

Commerce  of  the  Babylonians  ? 

Their  imports? 

How  was  their  trade   carried  on  in  the 

Indian  seas  ? 
How  and  why  was  this  trade  destroyed 

by  the  Persians? 
whence  did  they  obtain  pearls  ? 
The  cotton  plantations  on  these  islands  ? 
What  ship-timber  did  they  furnish  ? 


16 
17 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 


7. 
8. 

q. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

WESTERN  ASIA  :    INCLUDING  ASIA    MINOR,  SYRIA 
AND  PALESTINE. 

*^EC.  1. — Asia  Minor. — Geographical  Out- 
line. 


What  is  said  of  the  term  Asia  Minor  ? 

Where  was  Troy  situated? 

By  what  people  was  the  western  coasts 

of  Asia  Minor  colonized  ? 
What  is  said  of  Sardis? 
Why  was  Galatia  so  called  ? 
For  what  was  Caria  chiefly  remarkable? 
7.  By  whom  was  Tarsus  founded? 

Sec.  2. — Ancient  History  of  Asia  Minor. 

1.  The  three  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor  most 

worthy  of  notice  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  history  of  Troy? 

3.  When  and  by  whom  founded  ? 

4.  The  changes  it  underwent  ? 

5.  Cause  of  its  siege  and  destruction  ? 

6.  What  shows  that  the  Phrygians  were 

originally  a  very  powerful  people  ? 

7.  Their  chief  deity  ? 

8.  Her  priests,  and  for  what  celebrated? 

9.  Name  of  most  of  the  Phrygian  kings  ? 

10.  Story  of  the  Gordian  knot? 

11.  Who  were  the  Lydians  ? 

12.  The  three  dynasties  that  ruledoverthem? 

13.  Who  were  the  Cimmerians? 

14.  Effect  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  ? 

15.  By  whom  had  it  been  predicted? 

16.  What  is  said  of  Croesus? 

17.  Visit  of  Solon  to  him,  and  their  interview? 

18.  How  did  he  escape  death  ? 

Sec.  3. — Syria. — Geographical  Outline. 

1    To  what  countiy  was  the  name  of  Syria 

given  ? 
2.  Its  proper  dimensions  ? 
3    Its  three  divisions  ? 
4.  Its  principal  cities  ? 


5.  Situation  of  Palmyra? 

6.  By  whom  founded  ? 

7.  The  principal  cause  of  the  ruin  of  Tyre? 

Sec.  4. — Social  and  Political  Condition  oj 
the  Syrians  and  Pkwnicians. 

1.  The  only  large  river  in  Syria? 

2.  Its  soil,  and  natural  advantages  '' 

3.  What   circumstance  led  to  many  of  tha 

revolutions  of  Syria  ? 

4.  Its  religion  ? 

5.  Topography  of  Phoenicia  ? 

6.  Its  religion  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  the  Syrians  and  Phceni 
cians. 

1.  What  Jewish  king  conquered  Syria? 

2.  Who  threw  off  the  yoke  and  founded  the 

kingdom  of  Damascus  ? 

3.  Fate  of  Benhadad  ? 

4.  Character  and  actions  of  Hazael? 

5.  What  led  to  the  destruction  of  Damascus? 

6.  The   first  sovereign  of  Tyro,  and  with 

whom  contemporary  ? 

7.  His  son  and  successor  ? 

8.  Condition  of  Tyre  in  his  reign  ? 

9.  The  most  remarkable  of  his  successors  ? 

10.  By  whom  was  Carthage  founded? 

11.  How  was  Tyre  almost  ruined  by  Nebu- 

chadnezzar? 

12.  What  change  was  afterwards  made  in 

the  government  of  Tyro  ? 

13.  Of  what  advantage  was  it  to  Persia? 

14.  By  whom  and  when  was  it  finally  cap- 

tured ? 

Sec.  6. — Phoenician  Colonies  and  Foreign 
Possessions. 

1.  What  system  has  always  helped  on  civili- 

zation ? 

2.  The  design  of  founding  colonies  ? 

3.  Why  does  civil    liberty    advance   more 

rapidly  in  colonies  than  in  the  parenx 
state  ? 

4.  Characteristic  of  commercial  states  ? 

5.  Ezekiel's  description  of  Tyre  ? 

6.  Progress  of  the  Phcenician  colonies  ? 

7.  What  country  was  the   Peru  of  the  an- 

cient world  ? 

8.  What  is  Spain  called  in  the  Scriptures? 

9.  What   is  said   of   the   Tyrian   colonies 

there  ? 

10.  Conduct  of  the  Tyrians   toward  their 

colonies  ? 

11.  The  pillars  of  ?Iorcules,  what  ? 

12.  How  far  north  did  the  Tyrians  extend 

their  trade? 

13.  What   African   cities   rivalled  Tyro   in 

wealth  and  magnificence  ? 

14.  Why  did  they  keep  the  knowledge  ol 

their  discoveries  to  tliemselves  ? 

15.  Who  first  formed  commercial  settlement* 

along  Asia  Minor  and  the  Black  sea? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


16, 

17, 

18, 


2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 
14. 
15. 

16. 
17. 

18. 

19. 
20. 


What  establishments  did  they  have  in 

tho  eastern  seas? 
When  were  these  settlements  made? 
Willi  what  people  did  they  closely  ally 

themselves  ? 

Skc.  7. — Phwnician  Manufactures  and 
Commerce. 

I.  Tho  Tyrian  purple,  what ;  and  how  ob- 
tained ? 

What  art  was  known  to  the  Phoenicians 
aloiio  ? 

By  whom  was  glass  invented  ? 

The  products  of  Tyrian  industry? 

In  wliat  did  their  commerce  consist? 

Into  what  three  great  branches  may 
their  land-trade  be  divided? 

What  was  imported  from  Arabia  » 

How  was  this  trade  carried  ou? 

The  ports  of  the  Idumeans  ? 

Their  capital  ? 

Ancient  caravans,  describe  ? 

The  cause  of  the  close  alliance  of  the 
Phoenicians  and  Israelites  ? 

Who  built  Baalbec  and  Palmyra  ? 

His  design,  and  how  frustrated  ? 

The  great  high  road  of  Phoenician  com- 
merce ? 

Their  rivals  and  political  enemies  ? 

The  richest  country  in  the  ancient  world 
in  precious  metals  ? 

Whence  did  the  Phoenicians  procure 
their  tin  ? 

Whence  their  amber  ;  and  its  value? 

What  circumstances  prove  the  boldness 
of  their  commercial  enterprises? 


CHAPTER  V. 


PALESTINE. 


Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

I  Situation  of  Palestine  ? 

9  Its  most  remarkable  features  ? 

3.  Its  two  great  plains? 

4.  Its  only  great  river  ? 

5.  The  site  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah? 

6.  The  principal  cities  of  Palestine  ? 

7.  What  country  did  David  annex  to  it? 

8.  What  gave  importance  to  Idumapa? 

9.  Present  condition  of  Palestine  ? 

Sec.  2. — History  of  Palestine. 

1.  Father  of  the  Hebrews  ? 

2.  History  of  Joseph  ? 

3.  Fate  of  Pharaoh's  host  ? 

4.  Why  did  God  lead  his  people  through 

tho  desert  ? 

5.  When  did  they  reach  Sinai  ? 
I).  Their  government? 

7.  The  one  great  object  of  their  institutions? 

8.  For  what  purpose  were  they  chosen  by 

God  to  be  his  pecidiar  people  ? 


9.  Conduct  of  Moses  when  he  beheld  their 

golden  calf? 

10.  Why  were  they  compelled  to  wander  in 

the  wilderness  forty  years? 

11.  The  miracles  of  their  journey  ? 

12.  Why  did  they  leave  Edom  unmolested? 

13.  What  victories  did  they  gain  ? 

14.  Result  of  the  census  ? 

15.  Latt  acts  of  Moses? 

16.  Age  of  Moses  at  his  death  ? 

17.  Who  concealed  his  body,  and  why? 

Sec.  3. — The  Conquest  of  Canaan  hy  Joshua. 

1.  Moses'  successor ;  his  age  and  character  ? 

2.  Some  of  the  difficulties  in  his  way  ? 

3.  Conduct  of  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and 

Gad? 

4.  How  was  the  Jordan  crossed,  and  Jericho 

taken  ? 

5.  By  what  stratagem  weis  the  city  of  Ai 

taken  ? — See  the  S.  S. 

6.  Stratagem  of  the  Gibeonites  ? 

7.  What  miracle  was  performed  at  Joshua's 

command  ? 

8.  How  long  did  the  war  continue  against 

the  Canaanites? 

9.  The  folly  of  the  Israelites  in  abandoning 

it,  and  the  consequences? 

10.  Joshua's  age  at  his  death? 

11.  How  long  did  the  Israelites  continue  to 

serve  God  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  Israel  under  the  Judges. 

1.  How  was   Israel    governed   under  the 

theocracy  ? 

2.  How  were  these  judges  chosen  ? 

3.  Why  did  God  suffer  the  heathen  to  op- 

press his  people  ? 

4.  How  long  did  the  king  of  Mesopotamia 

oppress  them  ? 

5.  How  long  the  Moabites  ? 

6.  How  long  Jabin,  king  of  Syria? 

7.  How  long  the  Midianites  ? 

8.  How  were  they  delivered? 

9.  What  produced  a  civil  war? 

10.  How  was  Abimelech  killed? 

11.  Who  was  Jephthah  ? 

12.  How  long  did    the    Philisthies  oppress 

them? 

13.  What  strong  man  harassed  the  Philis- 

tines ? 

14.  His  end? 

15.  Conduct  of  Eli's  two  sons? 

16.  Who  was  Samuel  ? 

17.  Why  did  the  Israelites  demand  a  king? 

18.  What  made  this  demand  treasonable  ? 

19.  Whom  did  God  set  over  them  as  theii 

king? 

Sec.  5.— History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Israel. 

1.  What  made  Saul  popular  'vith  the  peo* 
pie? 


QUESTIONS    ON 


2.  When  and  where  did  Samuel  resign  his 

office  of  judge? 

3.  Character  and  deeds  of  Jonathan,  Saul's 

son? 

4.  Sinful  haste  of  Saul,   aod   his   punish- 

ment ? 

5.  Saul's  disobedience  of  a  divine  command? 
6    Whom   did    Samuel    anoint    as    Saul's 

successor  ? 

7.  Story  of  David  and  Goliath  ? 

8.  Why   was   Saul  jealous   of  David,  and 

how  did  he  show  his  feelings  ? 

9.  Conduct  of  David  thereupon  ? 

10.  Condition   of    Saul   after  the  death   of 

Samuel  ? 

11.  Story  of  the  witch  of  Endor  ? 

12.  Death  of  Said  ? 

13.  Policy  of  David,  after  Saul's  death? 

14.  Com-se  of  Abner  ? 

15.  His  end,  and  that  of  Ishbosheth  ? 

16.  Who  were  the  Jebusites? 

17.  What  important  city  did  David  capture? 

18.  War  with  the  Philistines,  and  its  results  ? 

19.  What  alliance  did  David  enter  into  ? 

20.  His  conquests  and  treasures  ? 

21.  His  sin  iu  the  matter  of  Uriah  \ 

22.  Its  punishment? 

23.  History  of  Absalom's  and  of  Sheba's  con- 

spiracy ? 

24.  Conduct  of  Adonijah  ? 

25.  How  long  did  David  reign  ? 

26.  His  successor,  and  his  character  ? 

27.  How  long  was  he  iu  building  the  temple  ? 

28.  What  other  magnificent  building  did  he 

erect  ? 

29.  What  greatly  increased  his  power  ? 

30.  Extent  of  his  dominions? 

31.  By  what  works  did  he  manifest  his  wis- 

dom ? 
32    His  defection  in  his  old  age  ? 
33.  How  long  did  he  reign  ? 

Sec.  6  -The  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes.— 
The  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel. 

1.  Folly  of  Rehoboam,  and  its  consequences  ? 

2.  Impiety  of  Jeroboam  ? 

3.  Conduct  of  the  Levites  in  Israel  ? 

4.  Conduct  of  Bdasha  ? 

5.  Story  of  Omri's  accession  ? 

6.  Who  built  Samaria  ;  and  why  was  it  so 

named  ? 

7.  Omri's  successor  ;  and  his  character  ? 

8.  Who  instigated  him  to  commit  idolatry  ? 

9.  Story  of  Elijah  and  the  priests  of  Baal  ? 

10.  Who  invaded   Israel  at  this  time,   and 

with  what  success  ? 

11.  Story  of  Naboth  and  his  vineyard  ? 

12.  Story  of  Elijah's  calling  down  fire  from 

heaven  ? 

13.  EndofEnjah? 

i4.  Success  of  Benhadad's  attempt  to  cap- 
ture Elisha  ? 
15.  Fate  of  Benhadad  and  his  army  ? 


20. 

21. 

22. 
23. 


24 


h« 


16.  Story  of  Jehu's  accession  ? 

17.  End  of  Jezebel  ? 

18.  Who  plundered  Jerusalem? 

19.  What  new  enemy  invaded  Israel  f 
Who  invaded  Judali ;  and  how  did 

treat  his  captives  ? 
To  what  people  did  the  Israelites  soon 

after  become  tributary  ? 
What  led  to  the  ruin  of  Israel  ? 
When,    and   by    whom,    was    Samaria 

taken  ;  and  the  Israelites  carried  away 

captive  ? 
To  whom  was  their  country  given  ? 


25.  Origin  of  the  Samaritans  ? 


Sec, 
1. 


9. 
10. 
14. 

12. 

13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 
21. 

22. 
23. 

24. 
25. 

26. 

27. 
28. 
29. 

30. 
31. 

32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 


7. — History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah. 

Rehoboam's  conduct,    and  how  was  it 

punished  ? 
How  is  the  account  of  Shishak's  power 

confirmed  ? 
How  did  he  treat  Jerusalem  ? 
Victory  of  Abijah  ? 
Asa's  character,  and  deeds  ? 
How  did  ho  exhibit  his  distrust  in  the 

divine  favour  ? 
Character  of  Jehoshaphat? 
Of  what  folly  was  he  guilty  ? 
How  did  he  suffer  lor  it  ? 
His  victories  ? 
What  wicked  alliance  did  he  form  ;  and 

the  fruits  of  it  ? 
How  was  his  son  Jehoram  punished  for 
his  sins? 

Athaliah's  conduct  ? 
Jehoash's  escape,  and  where  educated  ? 
Fate  of  Athaliah  ? 

Conduct  of  Jehoash  ;  and  how  punished? 
Conduct  of  Amaziah  ;  and  how  was  it 

punished  ? 
Character  and  deeds  of  Uzziah  ? 
Of  what   impiety   was   he   guilty,  and 

how  punished  ? 
Character  and  power  of  Jotham  '^ 
Wicked  deeds  of  Ahaz,  and  the  calami 

ties  of  his  reign  ? 
Character  of  Hezekiah  ? 
What  ancient  relic  did  ho  destroy,  and 

whj'? 
Of  what  folly  was  he  guilty  ? 
How  was  his  wavering  faith  confirmed  ? 
What  miracle  was  wrought  to  save  bis 

capital  ? 
Embassy  of  the  king  of  Babylon  ? 
His  folly  on  the  occasion? 
Character  and  conduct  of  Manasseh,  hia 

successor  ? 
How  did  he  treat  Isaiah? 
How  did  Jerusalem  suffer  in  consequenCB 

of  his  crimes  ? 
How  was  he  treated? 
His  latter  end  ? 

Character  and  conduct  of  his  son  ? 
Character  and  conduct  of  Josiah? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


36.  By  what  rash  act  did  ho  lose  his  life  ? 

37.  Who  elTectcd  a  revohition  in  the  affairs 

of  Asia  1 

38  How  did  he  treat  the  king  of  Judah,  and 

his  family? 

39  When,  wliy,  and  by  whom  was  Joriisa- 

lein  destroyed  ? 

40.  How  is  this  event  still  commemorated 

by  the  Jews  ? 

41.  How  were  the  captives  treated  ? 

42.  What  good  effect  did  their  long  captivity 

have  on  them  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  MEDES  AND  PERSIANS. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1  The  boundaries  of  Persia,  in  its  most 
prosperous  state? 

2.  Its  most  striking  features  ? 

3.  Tlie  sacred  metropolis  of  Persia  proper  ? 

4.  By  v.'hom  destroyed? 

5.  How   did  the    Uxii   treat   the    Persian 

kings  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  Susa? 

7.  Wliat,  of  Ecbatiina? 

8.  What,  of  Aria  ? 

9.  What,  of  Samarcand  ? 

10.  What,  of  the  valleys  of  the  centre  of 

Persia  ? 

11.  The  condition  of  Persia,  from  the  re- 

motest ages? 

Sec.  2. —  The  Sources  and  Extent  of  our 
Knowledge  respecting  the  Ancient 
Persians 

1.  What  is  the  Zend-a-vesta  ? 

2.  What,  the  Dabistan  ? 

3.  What,  the  Shah  Nameh ;  and  its  author  ? 

4.  "'ho  principal  Greek  authorities  for  the 

history  of  Persia  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  narrative  of  Hero- 

dotus ? 

G.  What  Persian  historv  da  we  find  in  the 
Bible  ? 

7.  The  lesult  of  modern  philological  re- 
searches ? 

Sec.  3  — Social  and  Political  Condition  of 
Ancient  Persia. 

1  To  whoso  incursions  has  central  Asia 
always  been  exposed? 

2.  Who  were  the  Arii ;  and  the  meaning 

of  the  word  ? 

3.  To  what  was  their  early  success  owing  ? 

4.  Who  w;is  Jemshid  ? 

5.  Who  overthrew  the  Modes? 

6.  Religion  of  the  Magi  ? 

7.  How  were  they  treated  by  Cyrus  ? 

8.  Who  was  Zoroaster,  and  what  was  his 

system  ? 

9.  ITie  author  of  the  system  of  Castes  ? 


10.  What  is  said  of  the  sacerdotal  rank  ra 

Persia  "^ 

11.  For  what  were  "  the  laws  of  the  Medea 

and  Persians  "  proverbial  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  king, 

and  his  satraps  ? 

13.  Condition  of  the  peasantry  ;  and  to  what 

owing  ? 

14.  What  other  source  of  v^retchedness  ex- 

isted ? 

15.  How  was  the  fate   of  a  Persian  army 

generally  decided  ? 

16.  Why  was  the  defeat  of  the  army  the 

conquest  of  the  kingdom  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  the  Medes  and  Persians 
under  the  Kaianian  Dynasty. 

1.  Of  what  country  were  Media  and  Persia 

once  provinces  ? 

2.  Who   rescued    Media   from   a   state  of 

anarchy  ? 

3.  His  deeds,  and  how  interrupted  ? 

4.  Under  whom  did  the  Median  power  obtain 

its  highest  glory? 

5.  How  long  did  the  ravages  of  the  Scythian 

host  continue? 

6.  How  were  the  Scythians  destroyed  ? 

7.  What  occasioned  the  war  between  Media 

and  Lydia  ? 

8.  The  most  memorable  event  of  this  war? 

9.  By  whom  was  Nineveh  destroyed? 

10.  The  next  exploit  of  Cyaxares  ? 

11.  Who  was  Astyages? 

12.  The  parents  of  Cyrus? 

13.  His  early  history  ? 

14.  Story  of  Daniel  ? 

15.  How   is   he    described   in  some   Jewish 

traditions  ? 

1 6.  First  act  of  Cyrus  toward  the  Jews  ? 

1 7.  Wliere  was  he  buried  ? 

18.  The  inscription  on  his  tomb  ? 

19.  His  successor,  and  his  conquests? 

20.  By  vvliat  folly  of  his  was  his  army  de- 

stroyed ? 

21.  What  prevented  him  from  carrying  his 

arms  into  Western  Africa  ? 

22.  His  death  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  the  Persians  under  the 
Hystaspid  Dynasty. 

1.  By  whom  was  Smerdis  raised  to   the 

throne  ? 

2.  His  successor  and  his  title  ? 

3.  What  great  philosopher  lived  in  his  time  t 

4.  How  did  Darius  secure  his  title? 

5.  What    city   revolted,    and   how   was  it 

taken  ? 

6.  What  country  did  ho  next  invade,  anf 

with  wliat  success  ? 

7.  Expedition  under  Mardonius? 

8.  Second  expedition,  and  how  destroyed? 

9.  Purpose  of  Xerxes,  his  successor  ? 

10    Repulse  at  the  straits  of  Thermopyte  ? 


10 


QUESTIONS    ON 


11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 
15. 

16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 

21. 
22. 
2.3. 
24. 
25. 
26. 


Victories  of  the  (ireeks  ? 

Oriental  name  and  account  of  Xerxes  ? 

His  name  in  the  Bible,  and  its  significa- 
tion ? 

His  fate? 

Terms  of  the  humiliating  treaty  of 
Artaxerxes  with  the  Greeks  ? 

Who  was  Darius  Nothus  ? 

By  whom  was  Artaxerxes  Mnemon 
opposed,  and  with  wiiat  success  ? 

Condition  of  the  empire  during  his  reign  ? 

What  Spartan  king  came  near  antici- 
pating Alexander  in  conquering  Persia  ? 

What  domestic  calamities  broke  the 
heart  of  the  Persian  king? 

Conduct  of  Ochus  on  his  accession  ? 

His  exploits  in  war  ? 

Who  was  Darius  Codomannus  ? 

How  did  he  treat  Bagoas  ? 

By  whom  was  Persia  conquered  ? 

What  two  battles  did  he  gain  ? 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PH(BNICIAN     COLONIES    IN     NORTHERN    AFRICA, 
EBPECIALLY    CARTHAGE. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline  of  Northern 
Africa. 

1.  When  was  Africa  first  circumnavigated  ? 

2.  Into  what  three  regions  was  the  northern 

coast  divided  ? 

3.  Its  six  political  divisions  ? 

4.  Situation  of  Carthage  ? 

5.  How  was  it  protected  ? 

6.  Extent  of  its  dominions  ? 

7.  Its  foreign  possessions  ? 

Sec.  2. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of 
Carthage. 

1.  The  government  of  Carthage? 

2.  In  what  cases  were  questions  of  policy 

submitted  to  the  people  ? 

3.  In  what    respect   was   its   government 

more  constitutional  than  any  of   the 
ancien    republics? 

4.  Give  examples. 

5.  The  religion  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

6.  Their  currency? 

7.  Their  public   revenues,  whence  derived? 

8.  Their  naval  skill  ? 

9.  Their  galleys,  how  built  and  manned  ? 
10.  Their  land  armies,  how  composed  ? 

Sec.  3. — History  of  Carthage  from  the 
Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Syracusan  Wars. 

1.  The  founder  of  Carthage  ? 

2,  Its  early  condition  ? 

3    How  regarded  by  the  cities  Utica  and 

Leptis  ? 
4.  What  IS  said  of  the  family  of  Mago  ? 


5.  With  whom  was  their  first  naval  engage- 

ment fought  ? 

6.  The  story  of  the  Phocaeans  ? 

7.  With  what  republic  did  it  form  a  treaty  t 

8.  With  what  Asiatic  power  ? 

9.  The  forces  which  they  raised  ? 

10.  Character  of  this  immense  army? 

11.  With   what   forces   did  Gelon,  king   of 

Syracuse,  attack  them? 

12.  Stratagem  of  Gelon  ? 

13.  Loss  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

14.  What    two    celebrated    victories    were 

gained  by  the  Greeks  on  this  same  day? 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  Carthaginians   after 

this  defeat  ? 

16.  What  led  them  again  to  Sicily  ? 


Sec.  4. — History  of  Carthage   during  tha 
Sicilian  Wars. 

1.  The  success  of  their  second  invasion  of 

Sicily  ? 

2.  What  city  did  they  besiege  ? 

3.  Their  cruelty  to  the  Agrigentines  ? 

4.  Treachery  of  Dionysius  ? 

5.  Third  invasion  of  Sicily,  cause  ard  suc- 

cess of  it  ? 

6.  Fourth  invasion  and  its  results  ? 

7.  What  troubles  ensued? 

8.  Character  of  Dionysius? 

9.  Fifth  invasion  of  Sicily,  how  defeated  • 

10.  Consequences  to  Mago  the  general? 

11.  Sixth  invasion,  with  what  forces? 

12.  How,  and  by  whom  defeated  ? 

13.  What    danger   did   Carthage   narrowly 

escape  at  home  ? 

14.  Conduct  of  Hanno,  and  his  fate  ? 

15.  Seventh  invasion   of  Sicily,  how  occa- 

sioned ? 

16.  Bold  design  of  Agathocles  ? 

17.  His  success  ? 

18.  What  did  he  find  in  the  enemies'  camp? 

19.  The  effect  of  this  victory? 

20.  Treachery  of  Agathocles? 

21.  How  was  it  rewarded  ? 

22.  His  death  ? 

23.  Whose  aid  was  now  solicited  against  the 

Carthaginians  ? 

24.  His  success? 

Sec  5. — From  the  Commencement  of  the 
Roman  Wars  to  the  Destruction  of  Car- 
thage. 

1.  Pyrrhus'  remark  when  leaving  Sicily  ? 

2.  What  led  to  the  first  Punic  war? 

3.  How  long  did  it  last,  and  its  results  ? 

4.  What  project  did  Hamilcar  Barca  form 

to  restore  his  country's  power? 

5.  What  oath  did  he  force  his  son  Hannibal 

to  take  ? 

6.  His  success  in  Spain  ? 

7.  or  what  has  Hasdrubal  been  suspected  1 

8.  What  city  did  he  build? 

9.  His  prudent  policy  toward  the  natives  7 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


11 


10.  To  what  did  the  Romaua  compel  him  ? 

11.  Tho  cause  of  the  second  Piiuic  war  ' 

12.  Its  results  ? 

13.  What  powerful  rival    was  raised  up  in 

Africa  itself  1 

14.  His  country's  ingratitude  to  Hannibal  ? 

15.  His  death  ? 

16.  What  aggressions  were  made  against  the 

Carthaginian  territory  ? 

17.  What  internal  dissensions  arose? 

18.  How  was  a  war  with   Massinissa  pro- 

voked ? 

19.  Pretext  for  the  third  Punic  war  ? 

20.  Fate  of  Carthage  ? 

Sec  6. — Namgation,  Trade,  and  Commerce 
of  Carthage. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  colonial  and  com- 

mercial policy  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

2.  What  peculiar  circumstances  forced  this 

system  on  them  ? 

3.  Their  articles  of  export  and  import  ? 

4.  Into  whose  hands  did  the  British  trade 

fall,  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage  ? 

5.  The  great  mart  of  Carthage  on  the  west 

coast  of  Africa  1 

6.  What  lucrative  fisherj' did  they  engage  in? 

7.  How  far  south  did  their  navigators  ven- 

ture ? 

8.  Their   imports    from    tho    neighbouring 

countries  V 

9.  From  the  interior  of  Africa  ? 

10    How  was  this  lucrative  commerce  con- 
cealed ? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  FOUNDATIOM  OF  THE  GRECIAN  STATES. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline  of  Hellas. 

1.  Boundaries  of  Greece  ?  4t 

2.  Its  extent  anc  area  ? 

3.  Advantages  of  its  situation  ? 

4.  Its  three  great  divisions  ? 
5    Describe  Thessaly. 

6.  Ho^""  was  it  ruined  ? 

7.  Describe  Ep':us. 

8.  For  what  was  it  celebrated  ? 

9.  The  nine  countries  of  central  Greece  ? 

10.  Dimensions  and  producticns  of  Attica? 

11.  For  what  was  Cithferou  celebrated? 

12.  What  is  said  of  Bocotia  ? 

13.  In  what  district  were  Helicon  and  Par- 

nassus ? 

14.  Where  was  the  temple  of  Delphi  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  Delphi? 

16.  Where  wus  the  pass  of  Tlicrmopylae  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  the  Acarnanians? 

Sec.  2. — Geographical  Outline  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

i.  After    whom     was     tho     Peloponnosnw 
named,  and  why  called  the  Morea  7 


2.  Its  eight  countries  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  Arcadia  and  its  inhabit- 

ants ? 

4.  Of  Laconia  ? 

5.  Of  Messenia,  and  its  inhabitants  ? 
().  Of  Argolis  ? 

7.  Of  Elis? 

8.  What  celebrated  games  were  celebrated 

near  Pisa,  every  live  years  ? 

9.  Where  was  Achaia,  and  its  inhabitants? 

10.  The  most  ancient  city  in  Greece  ? 

11.  How  was  the   Peloponnesus  connected 

with  Hellas  ? 

12.  What  proverbial  o.xprcssion  obtained  in 

Greece  ? 

13.  What   games   were    celebrated   on   this 

isthmus  ? 

14.  Situation  of  Corinth  ? 

15.  To  what  did  it  owe  its  power  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Grecian  Islands  in  the  Mgean 
and  Mcditcrraneaa  Seas. 

1.  For  what  was  Tonedos  remarkable  ? 

2.  Why  was  Lemnos  dedicated  to  Vulcan  ? 

3.  Where  was  Lesbos  situated  ? 

4.  For  what  was  Chios  celebrated  ? 

5.  For  what  Delos  ? 

6.  For  what  Pares  ? 

7.  What  great  poet  was  buried  in  los? 

8.  What  philosopher  was  born  in  Samos  ? 

9.  What  book  in  the  New  Testament  was 

written  in  Patraos  ? 

10.  What  distinguished  physician  was  born 

in  Cos  ? 

11.  For  what  was  Crete  celebrated? 

12.  The  favourite  island  of  Venus  ? 


Sec.  4.— The  loi 


Isles. 


For  what  is  Corcyra  celebrated  ? 
For  what  Ithaca? 
For  what  Zathynthus  ? 
For  what  Cy thorea  ? 


Sec.  5. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of 
Greece. 

1.  Between   what  two  races  was  Greece 

divided  ? 

2.  For  what  were  tho  loniaus  remarkable  ? 

3.  Their  characteristics? 

4.  For  what  were  tho  Dorians  remarkable? 

5.  Their  characteristics  ? 

6.  The    chief    characteristic    of    Grecian 

policy  ? 

7.  The  most  marked  feature  in  Ihe  political 

aspect  of  Greece  ? 

8.  What  did  the  supremacy  of  the  principa' 

state  include? 

9.  Why  was  political  science  so  rapidly  do 

veloped  in  Greece  ? 

10.  The  common  bond  of  union  of  the  IIeI« 

lenic  race  ? 

11.  Characteristic  of  Asiatic  and  oi  Grecian 

deities  ? 


12 


yUESTIONS   ON 


I 


18. 

19. 

20. 


12.  Effects  of  the  two  systems  ? 

13.  What  oracles  and  temples  were  national  1 

14.  Which  was  the  more  superstitious,  the 

Dorian  or  the  Ionian  race  ? 
Seat  and  prerogatives  of  the  Aniphic- 
tyonic  council  .' 

16.  The  great  public  games  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  these  games  ? 
What  remark  is  made  of  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Grecian  states  ? 

How  was  labour  esteemed  ? 
Their  attention  to  finance  ? 

21.  What,  after  a  while,  made  heavy  taxa- 

tion necessary  ? 

22.  What  other  source  of  expense  existed? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  dicasts  or  jurymen  ? 

24.  The  influence  of  poets  and  orators '? 

25.  What  circumstances  rendered  the  dura- 

tion of  the  constitution  brief,  thoi'gh 
glorious  ? 

Sec.  6. — The  traditional  History  of  Greece, 
from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  Trojan  War. 

1.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Greece  ? 

2.  Their  earliest  approaches  to  civilization  ? 

3.  The  first  tribe  that  acquired  supremacy 

in  Greece? 

4.  Their  first  city,  and  when  built  ? 

5.  Their  founder,  and  with  what  patriarch 

contemporary  ? 

6.  Pelasgic  remains,  describe. 

7.  How  long   did    the    Pela«gi  flourish   in 

Greece  ? 

8.  The  founder  of  the  Hellenes  ? 

9.  Their  progress? 

10.  Their  four  great  branches  ? 

11.  Whence  these  names? 

12.  The  common  attribute  of  ancient  tradi- 

tions ? 

13  History  of    Deucalion's   immediate  de- 

scendants ? 

14  Under  whom  did  an  Egyptian  colony 

settle  in  Attica  ? 

15  Who  founded  Thebes  ? 

16.  What  did  he  introduce  into  Greece? 

17.  What  circumstances  impeded  the  pro- 

gress of  civilization  ? 

18  What  league  was  founded,  in  order  to 

resist  these  incursions? 

19  With  what  was  Greece  infested  at  this 

time  ? 

20  Mention  some  of  their  most  celebrated 

opponents. 

21.  The    most    celebrated    events    of    this 

period  ? 

22.  Describe  the  Argonautic  expedition ;  its 

objects  and  results? 
83    The  story  of  CEdipus  and  his  sons  ? 
24    The  consequence  of  these  wars? 

25.  Story  of  Podarkes  or  Priam  ? 

26.  Story  of  Helen  ? 

27    The  expedition  against  Troy  ? 


28.  How  long  did  the  siege  last  ? 

29.  The  effect  of  this  expedition  on  Greece 

and  civilization  ? 

30.  What   is  said   of  the  military  weapona 

used  in  the  siege  of  Troy  ? 

Sec.  7. — Grecian  History,  from  the  Trojan 
War  to  the  Establishment  of  the  Greek 
Colonies  in  Asia. 

1.  Whose   descendants  peopled   the    Pelo- 

ponnesus ? 

2.  Their  rivals,  who  ? 

3.  The  HeraclidsB,  who? 

4.  By  whom  banished  ? 

5.  What  efforts  did  they  make  to  regain 

their  country  ? 

6.  Their  final  success,  how  secured  ? 

7.  How  did  it  happen  that  Sparta  always 

had  two  kings  ? 

8  What  became  of  the  Pelopida)  ? 

9  How  was  the  war  of  the  Dorians  with 

the  Athenians  terminated  ? 

10.  Why  was  royalty  abolished  in  Athens  ' 

11.  By  whom  was  yEolia  settled  ? 

12.  Conduct  of  the  younger  sons  of  Codrus  ? 
13    What  third  series  of  Greek  colonies  waa 

established  in  Asia  ? 

14.  By  whom  was  Sicily  settled? 

15.  Why  did  the  Greeks  seldom  settle  in  the 

interior  of  a  country  ? 

16.  What  remark  is  made  of  the  Greek  colo- 

nies ? 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  HISTORY  THE  GRECIAN  STATES  AND   COLO- 
NIES, BEFORE  THE  PERSIAN  WAR. 

Sec.  1. —  Topography  of  Sparta. 

1.  By  what  other  name  was  Sparta  known  ? 

2.  How  was  it  built  ? 

3.  How  was  it  protected  ? 

4.  What  buildings  were  contained  in  the 

great  square  ? 

5.  Describe  the  portico. 

6.  Where  was  the  temple  of  Minerva  ? 

7.  How  did  the  public  edifices  of   Sparta 

compare  with  those  of  Athens  ? 

8.  What,  and  where,  was  the   Hippodro- 

mes ? 

9.  What  the  PlatanisttE  ? 

Sec.  2. — Legislation  of  Lyciirgus,  and  the 
Messenian  Wars. 

1.  How  did  the  Dorian  conquerors  treat  the 

original  inhabitants  ? 

2.  How  long  were  the    ^artans  fighting 

with  the  Argives? 

3.  The  lawgiver  of  Sparta  ? 

4.  His  great  object  ? 

5.  What  institution  did  ho  originate  ? 
6    What  is  said  of  the  cphori  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


13 


7    The  power  jf  tlio  popular  assemblies  " 
8.  The  chief  regulations  of  private  life  ? 
9    Why    did    these   rosrukitions    banish    all 

hopes  of  tranquillity  from  Greece  ? 
0    In  what  did  tlio  strength  of  a  Spartan 
army  lie  ? 
■  1.  What  is  said  of  their  method  of  fighting? 

12.  The  first  great  war  in  which  the  Spar- 

tans were  engaged  ? 

13.  Tiie  results  of  it  >. 

14.  What  oath  did  the  army  take? 

15.  Who  were  the  Parthcnite  ? 

16.  How  were  they  treated? 

17    What  city  in  Italy  did  they  found  ? 
18.  Who  was  Aristomones  ? 
19    The  response  of  the  oracle  to  the   Spar- 
tans ? 

20.  Whom  did  the  Athenians  send  them? 

21.  How  did  he  inspire  his  troops  ? 

22.  How  was  Messene  taken  ? 

23.  What  enterprise  did  Aristomenes  then 

undertake  ? 

24.  How  was  it  defeated  ? 

25.  The  effect  of  the  war  on  Sparta  ? 

26.  What  important  island  did  the  Spartans 

wrest  from  the  Argives  ? 

Sec.  3. — Topography  of  Athens. 

1.  Situation  of  Athens  ? 

2.  What  was  the  Acropolis  ? 

3.  Its  dimensions  ? 

4.  What  was  the  Propylaea  ? 

5.  By  whom  erected  ? 

6.  What  temples  were  erected  on  the  sum- 

mit of  the  hill  ? 

7.  The  relative  situation  of  these  temples  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  Parthenon  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  Coele  ? 

10.  Describe  the  spot  from  which  the  orators 

addressed  the  people  ? 

11.  Wha;  was  the  Pnyx  ? 

12.  The  Geramicus  ? 

13  What  were  the  HerniiE  ? 

14  Origin  of  the  term  Stoics  ? 

15.  The  three  gymnasia  at  Athens  ? 
16  Origin  of  the  term  'Academy  ? ' 
.17.  Of  the  term  '  Peripatetics  ?  ' 

18.  The  founder  of  the  Academics? 

19.  Of  the  Peripatetics? 

20.  Of  the  Cynics? 

21.  What  is  said  of  the  long  road  to  the  Pei- 

reeus  ? 

22.  Dimensions  of  the  wall  that  enclosed  it? 

23.  AVhat  is  said  of  the  Peiraeus  ? 

24.  What  of  the  Munychian  port  ? 

Sec.  4. —  The  History  of  Athens  to  the  Be- 
ginning of  the  Persian  War. 

1.  When  does  the  political  history  of  Athens 

properly  begin  ? 

2.  Which  of  their  institutions  came  from 

the  Egyptians  ? 


3  Why  should  Theseus  be  regarded  as  the 

founder  of  the  state  ? 

4  The  most  remarkable  of  his  successors  i 

5.  In  what  respects  did  the  archons  differ 

from  kings  ? 

6.  The  first  and  the  last  archon  ? 

7.  Which  order  enjoyed  all  the  authority  in 

the  state  ? 

8.  The  condition  of  the  Athenian  populace  ? 

9.  The  character  of  Draco's  laws  ? 

10.  His  end  ? 

11.  Who  was  afterwards  appointed  to  leg'is- 

late  for  the  people  ? 

12.  Character  of  Solon  ? 

13.  The  chief  object  of  his  legislation  ? 

14.  His  laws  with  relation  to  debtors  ? 

15.  How  did  he  conciliate  capitalists  ? 

16.  Into   what   classes   did  he  arrange  tha 

citizens  ? 

17.  The  place  of  meeting  of  the  popular  as- 

semblies ? 

18.  Constitution  and  privileges  of  the  court 

of  Areopagus  ? 

19.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  sacred  war 

against  the  Crisseans  ? 

20.  How  was  its  termination  celebrated  ? 

21.  WHio  was  Peisistratus? 

22.  His  conduct  ? 

23.  Through  whose  exertions  was  he  bau- 

ished  ? 

24.  His  subsequent  course  ? 

25.  How  did  he  govern  ? 

26.  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

27.  Their  conduct  and  fate  ? 

28.  Conduct  of  the  Spartans  ? 

29.  Conduct  of  Hippias  at  the  court  of  Per- 

sia ? 

Sec.  5. — Historical  Notice  of  the  Minor 
Grecian  States  previous  to  the  Persian 
War. 

1.  When  was  royalty  in  Thebes  abolished  ? 

2  What  prevented  the  Boeotians  from  tak- 
ing a  leading  share  in  the  affairs  o 
Greece  ? 

3.  The  most  remarkable  state  in  the  Pelo 

ponnesus,  next  to  Sparta  ? 

4.  How  many  kings  reigned  over  Corinti  ' 

5.  What  was  then  substituted  in  the  place 

of  royalty? 

6.  Who  was  Cypselus  ?   and  who  Periau- 

der  ? 

7.  What  government  succeeded  to  the  c'l- 

pulsion  of  Psammetichus  "> 

8.  In  what  consisted  the  Corinthian  trade  ( 
9    With  whose  government  did  the   pros 

perity  of  Corinth  cease  ? 

10.  From  what  blow  to  her  power  did  she  ^ 

never  recover  ? 

11.  The  history  of  Sicyon? 

12.  Of  Arcadia  ? 

13.  Of  Argos  ? 

14.  Of  Elis  7 


QUESTIONS    Om 


Sk(J.  G. — Histwy  of  the  princijml  Grecian 
Islands. 

i.  What   is   said   of  tlie    insular  states  of 
Greece? 

2.  The.  hi:;tory  of  Corcyra  ? 

3.  Of  ^Eo-iiia? 

4.  Of  Euboea? 

5.  Of  the  Cyclados  ? 

6.  Of  Crete? 

7    Of  Cyprus  ? 

Sec.  7. — History  of  the  Greek  Colonies  in 
Asia  Minor. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  Greek  colonies? 

2.  V/ho  settled  the  western  coast  of  Asia 

Minor  ? 
What   illustrious  poets  and  philosophers 

were  born  tliere  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  iEolian  colonies  in 

Thi'ace  ? 
What  of  the  Ionian  emigration  ? 
Relate  the  oriffin  and  circumstances  of  it? 
7    The  chief  of  their  twelve  cities  ? 

8.  How  were  they  united  ? 

9.  In    what     empire    were     they    finally 

merged  ? 

10.  What  is  said  of  the  Dorian  colonies? 

11.  What  were  the  Hexapolis  ? 

Sec.  8. —  The  Greek  Colonies  oil  the  Euxine 
Sea,  the  Coasts  of  Thrace,  Macedon,  tj-c. 

1.  When  were  the  colonies  on  the  shores  of 

the  Propontis  founded? 

2.  What  is  said  of  Miletus  ? 

3.  What  of  Lampsacus  ? 

4.  What  of  Cyzicus  ? 

5.  Who  settled  Byzantium  and  Chalcedon  ; 

and  the  modern  names  of  these  cities  ? 

6.  The  first  Greek  city  on  the  Black  sea  ? 

7.  The  most  powerful  of  the  Greek  states 

on  the  Euxine  sea  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  slave-trade  ? 


3. 


5. 
6. 


8. 

9.  Where  is  Cyrene,  and  what  is  said  of  it? 

CHAPTER    X. 

BISTOllV  OF  GREECE,  FROJI  THE  COMMEXCE- 
MENT  OF  THE  PERSIAN  WARS  TO  THE  ACCES- 
SION OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 

Sec  1. — The  First  Persian  War. 

1.  What  bridge  did   Darius  Hytaspes  con- 

struct in  his  invasion  of  Syria  ? 

2.  To  whom  did  he  entrust  it  ? 

3.  What  opposing  counsels  were  given  on 

the  subject  of  it  ? 

4.  What  became  of  Histiajus  ? 

5.  The   object    of  Aristagoras'   mission  to 

Lacedtemon,    and    how    was    he    re- 
ceived ? 

6.  How  was  he  received  at  Athens  ? 

7.  What  wealthy  cltv  did  he  capture  ■ 
$.  How  was  it  avenged  ? 


9.  The  end  of  Aristagoras  and  of  Histiaeus 

10.  What  demand  did  Darius  make  oi  tha 

Athenians  ? 

11.  Their  answer  ? 

12.  How  did  Darius  show  his  resentment? 

13.  What  calamity  did    Mardonius  experi* 

ence  ? 

14.  How  did  ho   attempt  to   excuse  his  dis- 

grace ? 

15.  Darius' next  attempt  ? 

16.  The  course  of  his  armament? 

17.  What  traitor  was  directing  the  move- 

ments of  the  Persian  army  ? 

18.  Relative  size  of  the  two  armies? 

19.  Who  was  the  Athenian  leader? 

20.  Why  did  the  Spartans  refuse  their  as- 

sistance ? 

21.  Bold  resolution  of  the  Athenians  ? 

22.  Disposition  of  the  Greek  army  ? 

23.  Describe  the  battle. 

24.  What  attempt  did  the  Persian  fleet  then 

make  ? 

25.  How  was  it  baffled  ? 

2G.  How  was  Miltiades  treated  ? 

27.  What  two    illustrious  men    shared   the 

power  that  Miltiades  had  possessed  ? 

28.  How  was  Aristides  treated  I 

29.  The  great  object  of  Themistocles? 

30.  What  transactions  were  taking  place  a! 

Sparta  at  this  time  ? 

Sec.  2. —  The  Second  Persian  War. 

1.  Who    undertook     a   second    expedition 

against  Greece  ? 

2.  How  long  after  the  first? 

3.  Where  was  the  Persian  army  first  op- 

posed, and  by  whom? 

4.  The  reply  of  Leonidas  to  the  dem9jid  o: 

Xerxes  ? 

5.  Who  betrayed  him,  and  how 

6.  Conduct  of  Leonidas  ? 

7.  What  victory  did  the  Greeks  obtaui  ai 

the  same  time  ? 

8.  What  rendered  it  fruitless  . 

9.  The  subsequent  course  of  their  fleet  ? 

10.  Course    of    Xerxes   after   the    battle   of 

Thermopylte  ? 

11.  Course  of  the  Athenians  at  his  approach  ? 

12.  Stratagem  of  Themistocles  to  bring  on 

a  naval  engagement  ? 

13.  What  put  an  end  to  the  rivalry  between 

Themistocles  and  Aristides? 

14.  The  sea-fight  at  Salaniis  ? 

15.  The  determination  of  Xerxes  ? 

16.  How  was  he  forced  to  cross  the  Helles- 

pont, and  why  ? 

17.  What   offers  did  Mardonius  make   the 

Athenians? 

18.  Where    was   the   second    great    battle 

fought  ? 

19.  The  loss  of  the  Persians? 
i20.  What  naval  battle  was  fouglit  the  same 

day? 


ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


16 


21    How  had  the  Porsians  arranged   their 
ships  ? 

22.  What  were  the  most  splendid  resuUs  of 

these  victories  ? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  Athenian  repubUc 

after  this  ? 

24.  Plans  of  Themistocles  ? 

25.  What  city  did  Pansanias  take  ? 

26.  What  distinguished  persons  were  among 

tlio  captives? 

27.  Tiie  eiJect  of  so  much  wealth  on  Pansa- 

nias ? 
2B.   How  did  the  Spartans  treat  him  ? 

29.  The  effect  of  the  tyranny  of  Pansanias  ? 

30.  The  treasure  of  the  allies? 

31.  What  did  he  do  in  order  to  guard  against 

conii)laints? 

32.  Fate  of  Themistocles  ? 

33.  Proof  of  Aristides'  integrity  ? 

34.  Who   succeeded   him  as  leader   'A  the 

Athenian  republic  ? 
3,5.  What  two  great  victories  did  he  gain  on 

one  day  ? 
3G.  How  long  did  the  war  continue  ? 
37.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  ? 

Skc.  '.). —  The  First  Peloponnesian  War. 

I.  What  were  the  Spartans  preparing  to  do 

at  this  time,  and  why  7 
2    What   calamity   prevented   them   from 

acting  ? 

3.  The  effects  of  the  earthquake  ? 

4.  'Who   took  advantage   of  it  to  recover 

their  freedom  ? 

5.  Tiie  result  of  the  war? 
G.  Who  received  the  exiles  ? 

7.  What  Greek  state  had  declined  to  take 

part  in  the  war  against  Persia  ? 

8.  How  did  they  suffer  in  consequence  ? 
9    Wno  sutFered  for  similar  reasons  ? 

'  ■''    What  two  powers  arrayed  themselves  on 
difFerent  sides  in  this  contest  ? 

11.  Who  now    admhiistered  the    affairs   of 

Athens  ? 

12.  What  course  did  Pericles  adopt  to  secure 

his  influence  ? 
»3.  How  did  he  beautify  Athens  ? 

14.  How  did  he  defray  the  expense  of  these 

splendid  works  ? 

15.  How  did  ho  make  Sparta  tremble  ? 
IG.  What  led  to  a  truce? 

17.  The  favourite  policy  of  Pericles? 

18.  What  gave  him  the  fame  of  a  military 

leader  ? 

19.  How  did   he  overthrow  the  aristocratic 

party  ? 

20.  The  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  Athens  ? 

21.  Her  power? 

22.  What  led    to    ino    first    Peloponnesian 

war? 

23.  Give  an  account  of  Corcyra. 

24.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  war  betvtecn 

the  Corcyreans  and  the  Corinthians? 


25.  How  did  the  Corcyreans  provoke  general 

indignation  ? 

26.  To  whom  did  both  states  apply  to  decide 

their  quarrel  ? 

27.  Which  side  did  the  Athenians  espouse  ? 

28.  What  capture  did  the  Corinthians  make 

on  their  return  home  ? 

29.  What  complaints  and  demands  of  assist- 

ance were  made  at   Sparta  about  this 
time  ? 

30.  What  demands  did  the  Spartans  make 

of  the  Athenians  ? 

31.  How  were  they  received? 

32.  What    caused  war  to  be  instantly  pro- 

claimed ? 

33.  The  relative  power  of  Athens  and  Sparta  ? 

34.  How  did  the  war  begin  ? 

35.  What   dreadful   calamity   now    assailed 

Athens  ? 

36.  What  distinguished  statesman  fell  a  vic- 

tim to  it  ? 

37.  His  death,  describe. 

38.  How  was  Potidaea  treated  ? 

39.  How  Platasaj  ? 

04.  How  was  Lesbos  saved  from  destruct!on  ' 

41.  How  had  the   Corinthians  treated  their 

Corcyrean  prisoners  ? 

42.  The  consequences  of  their  lenity  ? 

43.  Which  party  in  Corcyra  prevailed? 

44.  The  bold  design  of  Demosthenes  ? 

45.  Its  accomplishment  ? 

46.  The  boast  of  Cleon? 

47.  How  was  he  served  ? 

48.  Cause  of  his  success  ? 

49.  By  what  were  these  triumphs   counter- 

balanced ? 

50.  What  distinguished   Spartan  leader  vy^aa 

sent  to  aid  the  revolters  ? 

51.  Who  were  slain  in  the  battle  between  the 

contending  armies  ? 

52.  What  led  to  the  conclusion  of  a  peace  1 

53.  How  did  the  Spartans  act  ? 

Sec.  4. —  The  Second  Peloponnesian  War. 

1.  How     did    the    Corinthians    resent   the 

abandonment  of  their  interests  by  the 
Spartans  ? 

2.  Whose  influence  led  to  the  second  Pelo- 


ponnesian war ; 

3.  Cliaracter  of  Alcibiades  ? 

4.  What  led  to  a  sudden  truce  between  the 

Spartans  and  Argives  ? 

5.  Conduct  of  Alcibiades  on  the  occasion? 

6.  Of  what   cruelty   were   the  Athenians 

guilty  ? 

7.  What  great  enterprise  did  the  Athenians 

now  undertake  ? 

8.  Who  remonstrated  against  it  ? 

9.  The  amount  of  the  forces,  land  and  sea? 

10.  Whither  did  the  fleet  first  sail  ? 

11.  How  wore  the  Catanians  induced  to  takt 

part  in  the  enterprise  ? 

12.  Why  was  Alcibiades  summoned  home  1 


16 


QUESTIONS    ON 


13.  His  course? 

14.  Conduct  of  Nicias? 

15.  How  were  the  generals  and  army  treated 

by  the  Syracusans  ? 

16.  The  effect  of  this  calamity  on  Athens? 

17.  What  other  misfortune  befell  them  ? 

18.  What   traitor  did  tiiem  the  greatest  in- 

jury ? 

19.  Their  most  pressing  danger  ? 

20.  How  was  their  ruin  saspended  ? 

Si.  What  change  was  made  in  their  govern- 
ment ? 

22.  What  led  to  the   deposition  of  the  four 

hundred  ? 

23.  What    brilliant    exploits    did   Alcibiades 

perform  before  he  returned  to  Athens  ? 

24.  How  was  he  received? 

25    What  appointment  did  he  receive  ? 

26.  Relate   how  he   became  a  second  time 

disgraced. 

27.  Who  succeeded  Lysander,  and  his  cha- 

racter ? 

28.  Why  were  the  Athenian  admirals  con- 

demned and  executed  ? 

29.  What    circumstance    proved     fatal    to 

Athens  ? 

30.  What    battle   virtually    terminated  the 

war? 

31.  Lysander's  cruelty  ? 

32.  On  what  humiliating  condition  were  the 

Athenians  forced  to  surrender? 
S3.  The  event  of  the  16th  of  May  ? 
34.  What  did  the  Spartans  still  fear? 
J5.  Why  had  they  cause  to  fear? 

36.  How  did  Pharnabazus  act  toward  Alci- 

biades ? 

37.  Describe  the  manner  of  his  death  ? 

38.  What    involuntary    homage     did     the 

Athenians  pay  to  his  talent  ? 

Sec.   ^ — Tyrannical    Rule    of    Sparta. — 
Third  Peloponncsiat.  War. 

1.  How  did  Lysander  treat   the    confede- 

rates ? 

2.  How  did  the  Spartans  rule  in  Athens  ? 

3.  What  did  they  do  to  cripple  the  com- 

merce of  the  Athenians  ? 

4.  Wliat  to  break  their  spirit  ? 

5    How   did  the   Thebans  treat  the   exile 
Athenians  ? 

6.  The  leader  of  these  exiles  ? 

7.  His  movements  and  success  ? 


8.  How   was   the    ancient   constitution   of 

Athens  restored? 

9.  How  did  the  Athenians  show  their  de- 
generacy? 

Character  of  Socrates  ? 

His  twc  mo?*^  famous  disciples  ? 

Give  an  account  of  tne   expedition   of 

Cyrus    and   the    retreat   of    the    ten 

thousand  ? 
What    became     of    them    after    their 

return? 


10. 

11 

12. 


13. 


14. 

15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 

32. 
33. 
34. 


35. 

36. 

37. 

38. 
39. 

40. 
41. 
42. 

43. 

44. 
45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

51. 

52. 

53. 

54. 

55. 

56. 

i57. 


Who  was  Agesilaus,  and  to  whom  did  hn 

owe  his  elevation? 
His  treatment  of  Lysander  ? 
His  success  against  Persia  ? 
What    led   to   the    third    Peloponnesiai. 

war  ? 
The  conduct  of  the  Spartans  to  Thebes? 
The  fate  of  Lysander  and  Pausanias? 
Why  was  Agesilaus  recalled  ? 
How  was  the  Spartan  navy  annihilated  T 
Conon's  use  of  this  success  ? 
What  two  battles   were    fought   during 

this  war  ? 
The  fate  of  Corinth? 
How  was  Conon  treated  by  Artaxerxes? 
The  base  conduct  of  Sparta  ? 
Its  treatment  of  Olynthus  ? 
Its  treachery  to  Thebes  ? 
Who  received  the  Theban  patriots  1 
How,  and  by  whom  was  Thebes  rescued? 
What  conduct  of  a  Spartan  general  filled 

Athens  with  indignation? 
The  course  of  the  war? 
What  saved  Sparta  from  destruction  ? 
Who  now  summoned  all  the   Grecian 

states  to  Sparta,  and  for  what  pur- 
pose? 
Who  was  Epaminondas  ? 
How  did  he  destroy  Spartan  influence  at 

this  conference  ? 
Describe  the  battle  of  Leuctra. 
The  consequences  of  this  battle  ? 
What  powerfid  ally  now  jouied  the  The- 
bans ? 
What  grand  scheme  had  he  formed  I 
His  death  ? 
How  were  his  murderers  received  ui  the 

Grecian  republics  ? 
What  imminent  danger  now  threatened 

Sparta? 
The  progress  of  the  Theban  army  ? 
How  long  had  it  been  since  an  enemy 

had  appeared  in  Laconia  ? 
How  were  the  Spartans  still  more  deeply 

mortified  ? 
Conduct  of  the  Athenians  ? 
How  were  the  Theban  generals  received 

on  their  return  home  ? 
The  different  conduct  of  Pelopidas  and 

Epaminondas  ? 
The  course  of  events  during  the  six  fol- 
lowing years  ? 
What  distinguished  hostage  did  Pelopidas 

bring  with  him  from  Macedon  ? 
How  was  Pelopidas  treated  by  Alexander 

of  Phera;  ? 
The   eftect   of  his   eloquence    with   th« 

Persian  monarch? 
Why  did  the  Grecian  states  refuse  ta 

accede  to  this  union? 
Death  of  Pelopidas? 
Bold  attempt  of  Epaminondas  7 
What  prevented  its  success  \ 


ANCIENT    niSTORT. 


17 


t>8.  \Vliat   prevented    him    from    capturing 
Mantinoea  ? 

59  Wliat  great  victory  did  he  now  gain? 

60  Tiie  etiect  of  it  ? 

61.  The  effect  on  Thebes  of  the  deaths  of 

Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas? 

62.  Terms  of  tiie  treaty  of  peace  ? 

63    Influence  on  Sparta  of  Agesilaus? 

Sec.  6. —  The  Second  Sacred  War. — De- 
struction of  Grecian  Freedom. 

1.  How  did  the  Athenians  lose  their  domi- 

nion over  the  maritime  states? 

2.  Who  excited  them  to  such  conduct? 

3.  What  states  revolted  ? 

4.  What  defeat  did  the  Athenians  sustain  ? 

5.  Base  conduct  of  Chares  ? 

6.  How  did  ho  complete  the   ruin  of  the 

Athenians  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 

cil? 

8.  How  did    it   punish   the    Phocians   and 

Spartans,  and  why  ? 

9.  How  did  the  Phocians  act? 

10.  How  was  the  war  conducted  on  both 

sides  ? 

11.  The  Me  of  Philomelus? 

12.  His  successor,  and  his  conduct  ? 

13.  To  whom  did  the  Thebans  apply  for  aid? 

14.  His  conduct? 

15.  Why  was  he  unwilling  to  pass  the  straits 

of  Thermopylas  ? 

16.  Who  renewed  the  war? 

17.  How  was  Philip  mortified  ? 

18.  Why  did  the  Phocians  now  desire  peace? 

19.  Why  was  it  refused? 

20.  How  did  Philip  act  ? 

21.  By  what  orator  was  he  opposed? 

22.  Who  excited  a  new  sacred  war? 

23.  In  what  manner  ? 

24.  Conduct  of  Philip  ? 

25.  Who  opposed  him  ? 

26.  Where  were  they  defeated? 

27.  To  what  office  was  Philip  now  chosen  ? 


CHAPTER    XI  . 

THE  HISTORY  OF  MACEDON. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1.  What  separates  Thrace  from  Macedon  ? 

2.  The  ancient  name  of  Macedon? 
The  boundaries  of  Macedon  in  its  most 

flourishing  state  ? 
How  many  nations  did  it  contain  ? 
Where  was  Epidamuus? 

6.  Tiie  capital  of  Macedon  ? 

7.  The  most  important  cities  of  the  Chalci- 

diau  peninsula? 
8    The    most    remarkable    mountains    of 
Macedon  ? 


9.  Its  principal  rivers? 

10.  Its  soil  and  productions? 

11.  For  what  was  it  celebrated? 

Sec.  2. —  History  of  the  Macedonian  Mo' 
narchy. 

1.  How  was  Macedon  settled? 

2.  How  was  Edessa  taken  ? 

3.  When  did  the  kingdom  become  tributary 

to  the  Persians  ? 

4.  When  did  it  recover  its  independence  ? 

5.  Why  did  Perdiccas  II.  unite  with  the 

Spartans  against  the  Athenians? 

6.  Policy  of  Archelaus,  his  successor? 

7.  Wliat  philosopher  and  what  poet  did  he 

patronize  ? 

8.  His  successor  ? 

9.  The  condition  of  his  kingdom  at  his  ac- 

cession ? 

10.  His  first  movements  ? 

11.  What  military  improvement  did  he  make^ 

12.  What  victories  did  he  soon  gain? 

13.  His  conduct  toward  Athens? 

14.  How  was  he  rewarded  by  the  Thessa- 

lians  ? 

15.  Whom  did  he  marry? 

16.  His  policy? 

17.  By  whom  was  he  opposed? 

18.  What  personal  injury  did  he  sustain  at 

the  siege  of  Methone  ? 

19.  What  two  disappointments  did  he  sooa 

afterwards  experience  ? 

20.  Who  spent  his  life  in  opposing  him  ? 

21.  What  city  did  he  take  and  destroy? 

22.  How  did  he  disarm  the  Athenians  ? 

23.  Of  what  further  folly  were  they  guilty  1 

24.  How  did  Philip  treat  Amphissa? 

25.  How  did  ho  announce  his  design  against 

the  liberties  of  Greece  ? 

26.  What  signal  victory  did  he  gain  over  the 

Greeks  ? 

27.  His    conduct  toward  the  Thebans    and 

Athenians  ? 

28.  To  what  office  was  he  now  elected? 

29.  What  put  an  end  to  all  his  schemes? 

30.  His  successor  ? 

31.  What  enemies  did  he  have  to  contend 

against  ? 

32.  His  successes? 

33.  What  report  was  now  spread  throughout 

Greece  ? 

34.  Its  effect  ? 

35.  How  were  the  Thebans  treated  by  Alex- 

ander ? 

36.  What  family  did  he  spare  ? 

37  Who  were  most  active  in  this  destruc- 
tion, and  why? 

33.  'Whiit  rrgret  did  A'exander  afterwarda 
express  ? 

39.  The   effect  of  this  calamity  throughout 

Greece  ? 

40.  To  whom   did   Alexander    entrust    the 

government  of  Greece  and  MacedoQ  ? 


18 


QUESTIONS    OX 


41.  What  empire  did  he  now  prepare  to  in- 

vade ? 

42.  The  amount  of  his  forces  ? 

43.  Whence  did  he  embark  ? 

44.  The  prudent  advice  of  Memnon  ? 

45.  His  first  battle  ? 

46.  His  conquests  at  the  end  of  the  first  cam- 

paign ? 

47.  Folly  of  Darius  ? 

48.  His  second  battle  ? 

49.  What  captives  and  what  spoil  did  Alex- 

ander take  ? 

50.  The  noble   conduct  of  Alexander  after 

this  battle  ? 
51    What  city  set  him  at  defiance  ? 

52.  Its  punishment '? 

53.  What  second  city  resisted,   and  shared 

the  same  fate  ? 

54.  How    did    ho    open    his    fourth    cam- 

paign ? 

55.  The  third  battle  of  Darius? 

56.  Describe  this  battle  ? 

57.  Respective  losses  of  the  two  armies  ? 

58.  How  was  tliis  triumph  sullied  ? 

59.  Fate  of  Darius  1 

60.  Fate  of  his  murderer  ? 

61.  What  other  country  did  Alexander  now 

invade  ? 

62.  Conduct  of  the  Lacedoemonians   at  this 

time  ? 

63.  What  proofs  of  Alexander's  respect  for 

the  ancient  states  of  Greece  are  men- 
tioned ? 

64.  Why  was  ^Escliines  banished  ? 

65.  By  what  route  did  Alexander  advance 

toward  India? 

66.  What  reinforcement  did  he  receive  ? 

67.  What  enemy  did  he   meet  with   on  the 

banks  of  the  Hydaspes  ? 

68.  How  did  he  effect  a  passage  ? 

69    How  far  eastward  did  he  proceed  ? 

70.  Why  did  he  go  uo  further  ? 

71.  By  what  route  did  he  return? 

72.  Course  of  Noarclius  ? 

73.  What  proof  of  Alexander's  consummate 

wisdom  is  given  ? 

74.  What  cut  short  his  plan  ? 

75.  The  place  and  date  of  his  death  ? 
76   To  whom  did  he  give  his  ring? 

Sec.   3. — Dissolution    of    the   Macedonian 
Empire. 

1.  What  remark  is  made  of  Perdiccas  ? 

2.  Conduct  of  the  Macedonian  nobles? 

3.  What  had  well  nigh  led  to  a  civil  war, 

and  how  was  it  averted  ? 

4.  What  arrangement  was  made  ? 

5.  How  were  Alexander's  remains  treated? 

6.  What    projected     marriage     was     pro- 

vented? 

7.  What   storm  now   burst  upon    Perdic- 

cas 7 


8.  What  battle  was  fought,  and  with  what 

results  ? 

9.  The  fate  of  Perdiccas? 

10.  AVhat  brief  struggle  now   took  place  ii. 

Greece  ? 

11.  Its  progress  and  results  ? 

12.  Conduct  of  Ptolemy? 

13.  How  was  Eumenes  treated  by  the  army  ? 

14.  Who  was  made  regent  ? 

15.  Whom   did  Antipater  send  against  Eu- 

menes ? 

1 6.  Who  discovered  the  secret  plans  of  Anti- 

gonus  ? 

17.  What  produced  a  new  revolution  in  tho 

empire  ? 

18.  Antipater's  successor? 

19.  Instances  of  his   unstatesman-like  con- 

duct? 

20.  IIow   was    this   last    edict  received    al 

Athens  ? 

21.  Who  fell  victims  there  to  mob  violence  f 

22.  Conduct  of  Cassauder  ? 

23.  Who  governed  Athens  at  this  time? 

24.  Movements  of  Polysperchon  ? 

25.  Conduct  of  Olympias  ? 

26.  How  was  she  punished? 

27.  Whom  did  Cassander  marry  ? 

28.  How  did  this  marriage  benefit  him  ? 

29.  What  was   Polysperchon  doing  at  this 

time? 

30.  How  was  Eumenes  treated  by  his  troopa, 

and  his  death  ? 

31.  How  were  these  troops  punished? 

32.  Grand  design  of  Antigonus? 

33.  How  did    he    prepare    to  carry   it   into 

effect? 

34.  What  victory  did  Ptolemy  gain,  and  its 

consequences? 

35.  What    defeat    did    he    afterwards    sus- 

tain ? 
30.  How  did  Demetrius  become  involved  in 
a  conquest  with  the  Arabs  ? 

37.  Bold  conduct  of  Seleucus  ? 

38.  What  new  dynasty  now  arose  ? 

39.  Insincerity  of  Cassander. 

40.  What  was  Ptoiemy  preparing  to  do  ? 

41.  What  did  Lysimachus  resolve  upon? 

42.  Whom   did    all    acknowledge    as    their 

sovereign  ? 

43.  What  murders  did  Cassander  commit? 

44.  Movements  of  Demetrius  ? 

45.  To    what    office    did  his  father  appoint 

him  ? 

46.  What    new     confederacy   was    formed 

against  Antigonus  ? 

47.  What  great  battle  was  fought  at  Ipsus 

that  decided  the  fate  of  an  empire  ,•  the 
parties  engaged,  and  the  result  ? 

48.  The  consequences  of  this  battle  ? 

49.  How  long   had  the   mighty  empire   of 

Alexander  lasted? 

50.  The   most   endimng    memorial    f»f    ha 

Dolicy  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTOKT. 


19 


CHAPTER   XII. 

HISTORY  Of  THE  STATES  THAT  AllOSE  FROM 
THE  DISMEMBERMENT  OF  THE  MACEDONIAN 
EMPIRE. 

8ec.  1. —  The  History  of  Mac'edon  and 
Greece  from  the  Battle  of  Ipsus  to  the 
Roman  Conquest. 

1.  Whither  did    Domotruis   flee   after   the 
fatul  battle  of  Ipsus? 
How  v.'as  he  received? 
Where  did  he  establish  himself? 
Whom  did  ho  how  obtain  for  a  son-in-law? 


2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


To  whom  did  Cassander  leave  his  king- 


dom at  his  decease  ? 
6    Of  what  dreadful  crime  was  his  son  An- 
tipatcr  guilty  ? 

7.  The  consequences  of  it  ? 

8.  Whose   aid  did  Alexander,  the  surviving 

son,  seek  ? 

9.  The  consequences  of  inviting  Demetrius 

into  Macedon? 

10.  What  mighty  plans  did  Demetrius  now 

form  ? 

11.  Who    was   excited   to    invade    his    do- 

minions ? 

12.  The  movements  and  fate  of  Demetrius  ? 

13.  Crime  of  Lysimachus  ? 

14.  The  consequences  of  it  to  himself? 

15.  By  whom  was  Seleucus  murdered  ? 

IC.  What  events  took  place  the  same  year  in 

which  Seleucus  fell? 
17.  The  cause  of  these  revolts  in  Asia? 
18    How  did  Alexander  the  Great  attempt  to 

Helienize  the  East  ? 

19.  The  result  of  this  attempt? 

20.  By  whom  was  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  king 

of  Macedon,  slain  ? 

21.  The  progress  of  the  Gauls  ? 
22    Where  did  they  finally  settle  ? 

23.  Who  now  obtained  the  vacant  throne  of 

Macedon  ? 

24.  The  confederate  cities  of  the  Achaean 

league? 

25.  What  led  to  a  now  revolution  hi  Mace- 

don ? 

26.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Pyi-rhus  ? 

27.  Who  regained  the  throne  of  Macedon  ? 

28.  What   cities   now    joined   the   Achtean 

league  ? 

29.  What  revolution  took  place  in  Sparta  ? 

30.  What  brought  about  a  counter  revolu- 

tion ? 

31.  Conduct  of  Cleomenes? 

32.  By  whom  was  he  defeated? 

33.  What  rekindled  the  flames  of  war  ? 

34.  Of  what  imprudence  was  Aratus  guilty  ; 

and  its  consequences  ? 

35.  Against  whom  was  war  now  declared  by 

the  AchiEan  league? 
86.  What  commercial  war  was  going  ou  St  I 
the  same  time  ?  | 


31.  The  project  of  tlie  exile  Cleomenes? 

38.  How  was  he  treated  by  the  young  king 

of  Egypt? 

39.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

40.  What  is  said  of  him  ? 

41.  What   now   inclined   all   the   (ireeks  to 

peace  ? 

42.  Whore  was  a  treaty  couchidcd  ? 

43.  What  is  said  of  the  MacedoiiiaH  monarch? 

44.  With  whom  did  ho  form  an  alliance? 

45.  What  great  crime  did  ho  connnit  ? 

46.  How  did  the  Romans  And  employment 

for  Philip  at  home '! 

47.  The  parties  in  the  war  that  ensued  ? 

48.  The  successor  of  Aratus  ? 

49.  Against  whom  did  Philip  now  declaro 

war? 

50.  Whose  aid  did  the  Athenians  solicit  t 

51.  Whither  did  the  Romans  next  proceed? 

52.  Where  did  they  ficr.t  with  Piiilip  ? 

53.  Describe  the  battle. 

54.  On  what  terms  did  Philip  obtain  peace  ? 

55.  What    proclamation    did    the    Romans 

make  at  the  Isthmian  games? 

56.  Describe  the  scene. 

57.  How  did  Flaminius  show  his  insincerity  ? 

58.  Who    now    declared    war    against    the 

Romans  ? 

59.  By  whom  was  he  instigated  ? 

60.  What  is  said  of  his  campaigns? 
Gl.  The  result  of  the  war? 

62.  How  wore  the  .lEtolians  treated  by  the 

Romans  ? 
G3.  By  whom  was  Sparta  captured  ? 

64.  What  loss  did  the  league  sustain? 

65.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  his  death. 

66.  How  was  his  fate  avenged  ? 

67.  Philip's  cruelty  to  his  son  Demetrius  ? 

68.  His  death,  how  occasioned  ? 

69.  The  first  act  of  Perseus,  his  successor? 

70.  Where  was  he  defeated  by  the  Romans  1 

71.  How  was  he  treated? 

72.  The  effect  of  the  eclipse  of  the  moon  on 

the  two  armies  ? 

73.  How  did  the  Romans  treat  the  Achreans? 

74.  What  led  to  the  destruction  of  Corinth  ? 

75.  What  is  said  of  Athens  ? 

Sec.  2. — History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Syria 
under  the  Seleucida. 

1.  What  advantage  did  Seleucus  gain  by 

his  victory  over  the  satraps  of  Media 
and  Persia? 

2.  What  further  additions  did  ho  make  t« 

his  territories  in  four  years? 

3.  How  far  did  he  penetrate  India  ? 

4.  What   advantages  did   he    gain   by   his 

treaty  with  Sandracottus  ? 

5.  The  seat  of  his  government  ? 

6.  Why  was  this  an  unfortunate  choice  ? 

7.  What  cities  did  ho  found  ? 

8.  Why  did  he  invade  Europe  ? 
j    His  end? 


20 


QUESTIONS    ON 


10.  His  successor? 

11.  Mention  the  several  wars  in  which  he 

was  engaged,  and  tlieir  results. 

12.  Why  was  his  son  and  successor  called 

Theos? 

13.  Why  did  he  begin  to  lose  the  provinces 

of  Upper  .4-sia  ? 

14.  The  conditions  of  his  treaty  with  Pto- 

lemy ? 
l.^.  How  did  he  suffer  for  fulfilling  them  ? 

16.  Who  succeeded  him? 

17.  What  war  did  his  mother's  crime  bring 

on  him  ? 

18.  Progress  of  Ptolemy  ? 

19.  What  did  he  gain  by  this  expedition  ? 

20.  What  enemies  now  rose  against  Seleucus? 

21.  The  result  of  these  wars  ? 

22.  The  fate  of  Seleucus? 

23  To  whom  was  Antiochus  the  Great  in- 
debted for  his  crown  ? 

24.  How  was  he  deceived  by  his  prime 
minister  ? 

26.  How  did  the  rebel  forces  act  when  An- 
tiochus marched  against  them  ? 

26.  The  fate  of  the  prime  minister  and  his 

brothers  ? 

27.  In  what  wars  was  Antiochus  now  en- 

gaged ? 

28.  In  what  important  expedition  did  he  en- 

gage, in  conjunction  with  the  Bactrian 
mounrch  ? 

29.  Who    prevented   him   from    conquering 

Egypt  ? 

30.  On  what  occasion  did  the   Romans  a 

second  time  mterfere  ? 

31.  By  whom    was   he   instigated   to   treat 

them  with  disdain  ? 

32.  What  battle  laid  him  prostrate  at  their 

feet? 

33.  Of  what  countries  did  they  deprive  him? 

34.  His  end  ;  and  his  successor  ? 

35.  The  fate  of  Seleucus  IV.  ? 

36.  What  did  the  Jews  say  of  this  event  ? 

37.  His  successor,  and  his  surnames? 

38.  How  did  he  provoke  universal  hatred  ? 

39.  The  cause  of  his  war  with  Egypt  ? 

40.  Its  progress  and  results  ? 

41.  What  treachery  was   practised  toward 

him  ? 

42.  Who  prevented  him  from  taking  his  re- 

venge ? 

43.  What  resolution  did  he  now  attempt  to 

carry  out? 

44.  The  results  of  his  wild  project? 

45.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

46.  Under  what  circumstances  did  he  lose 

his  life? 

47.  Tlie  fate  of  the  usurper  Balas  ? 

48.  What  withheld  Demetrius  from  march- 

ing against  the  usurper,  Tryphou? 

49  What  was  his  success  ? 

50  The   vicissitudes    of    fortune   he    expe- 

rienced ? 


51.  The  fate  of  Seleucus,  his  son  ? 

52.  How  was  he  avenged? 

53.  How   did   the   Syrians  treat  the  eutiri 

family,  and  why? 

54.  To  whom  did  they  offer  their  crown? 

55.  The  fate  of  Tigranes? 

56.  The  last  of  the  Soleucidaj,  and  his  fate  ? 

Sec.  3. — History  of  Egypt  under  the 
Ptolemies. 

1.  Who  was  the  wisest  statesman  among 

the  successors  of  Alexander  ? 

2.  How  did  he  conduct  himself  in  Egypt  ? 

3.  His  patronage  of  literature  ? 

4.  What  people  flocked  to  Alexandria ;  and 

why? 

5.  What   is   the   Septuagint,   and  why   so 

called? 

6.  What  works  did  he  erect? 

7.  Describe  the  college  of  philosophy  ? 

8.  Its  reputation  and  permanence  ? 

9.  The  material  for  writing  previous  to  pa- 

pyrus ? 

10.  What  is  papyrus? 

11.  Its  influence  on  literature? 

12.  Why  was  not  parchment  substituted  for 

it? 

13.  How  was  Egypt  strengthened? 

14.  Popularity  of  the  son  of  Ptolemy  Lagus  ? 

15.  His  successor,  and  his  administration  ? 

1 6.  What  channels  of  trade  were  opened  ? 

17.  What  pernicious  habits  did  Philadelphua 

adopt  ? 

18.  What  mission  did  he  send  to  Rome? 

19.  Of  what   benefit   was   this    mission   to 

Rome  ? 

20.  Character  and  deeds  of  Ptolemy  Ever* 

getes  ? 

21.  Character  of  Ptolemy  Philopater? 

22.  What   illustrious   persons  did  he  put  to 

death  ? 

23.  His  folly  at  Jerusalem  ? 

24.  Of  what  crimes  was  ho  guilty? 

25.  What  circumstance  saved  Egypt  from 

being  involved  in  the  Syrian  war? 

26.  Character  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  ? 

27.  Character  and  deeds  of  Ptolemy  Philc 

meter? 

28.  His  successor,  and  whom  did  he  marry  ? 

29.  His  character,  and  deeds  ? 

30.  The  history  of  his  sons? 

31.  What   illustrious    daughter   of  Ptolemy 

Auletes  became  queen  of  Egypt? 

32.  Her  fate,  and  that  of  her  kingdom? 

33.  What  is  said  of  Alexandria  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  the  Minor  Kingdoms  in 
Western  Asia. 

1.  The  principal  kingdoms  fonned  from  th« 

the  fragments  of  the  Macedonian  mo- 
narchy in  Western  Asia? 

2.  The  history  of  Pergamus,  and  its  kings  ? 

3.  What  invention  do  we  owe  to  them  .' 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


21 


4.  V^^lat  became  of  their  library  ? 

5.  The  liistory  of  Bithynia? 

G.  The  most  illastrioiis  inouarch  of  Pontus? 

7.  His  character? 

8.  With  whom  did  he  provoke  a  contest? 

9.  Of  wliat  act  of  cniolty  was  ho  guilty  ? 

10.  Of  what  Grecian  city  did  he  make  him- 

self master  ? 

11.  Whut  Roman  consul  frequently  defeated 

him  1 

12.  Why  did  Sylla  make  peace  with  him? 

13.  How  was  ho  treated  by  Murajna? 

14.  His  conduct  daring  tlio  civil  wars  of  the 

Romans  1 

15.  What   yonug  Roman   student  defeated 

his  lieutenants  ? 

16.  Who  was  sent  against  him,  and  what 

success? 
}  7.  What  re-animated  the  country  of  Mithri- 
dates? 

18.  What  forced  Lucullus  to  return  home? 

19.  Who  was  now  sent  against  him  ? 

20.  Ilis  reverses,  and  return  to  his  comitry  ? 

21.  Ilis  misfortunes  and  death? 

22.  What  is  said  of  Gappadocia,  and  of  its 

inhabitants  ? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  two  Armenias  ? 

24.  What  first  gave  celebrity  to  Rhodes? 

25.  Describe  the  siege. 

26.  What  was  erected  in  commemoration  of 

this  siege? 

27.  The  conduct  of  the  Rhodians  in  the  war 

between  Antiochus  and  the  Romans? 

28.  How  were  they  afterwards  treated  by 

the  Romans  ? 

29.  What  king  attacked  them? 

30.  Their  conduct  in  the  civil  war  between 

Pompey  and  Cajsar  ? 

31.  How  were  they  treated  by  Cassius? 

32.  How,  by  Claudius  Csesar,  and  for  what 

cause  ? 

33.  How,  by  Vespasian  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  Bactria  and  Parthia. 

' .  In  what  respect  did  the  Bactrian  king- 
dom diffT  from  those  described  in  the 
preceding  sections? 

2.  Its  founder? 

3  The  extent  of  the  kingdom  in  the  height 
of  its  prosperity  ? 

d.  By  whom  were  the  Greeks  driven  from 
the  kingdom,  and  what  became  of 
them? 

5.  Are  they  still  existing  ? 

6.  The  general  limits  of  the  Parthian  king- 

dom? 

7.  What  is  said  of  their  monarchs? 

8.  What   circumstance   proves    that   they 

were  foreigners  ? 

9.  Their  exclusive    policy,   and  its  conse- 

quences ? 
10.  What    cities    were    beuefited    '■'      he 
chao*"*'  " 


11.  Who  commenced  the  war  of  iad«peu« 

dence  ? 

12.  The  original  government  formed  by  the 

heads  of  the  Parlhian  tribes? 

13.  What  was  a  remarkable  peculiarity  of 

Parthian  tactics  ? 

14.  How  did  tiie  war  between  the  Pai.hiana 

and  Syrians  terminate  ? 

15.  The  first  danger  to  which  the  Parthians 

were  exposed? 

16.  Against  what  formidable  power  did  they 

next  cuatend  ? 

17.  The  result  of  llie  expedition  ol   Crassus? 

18.  Which  side  did  they  favour  in   the  civil 

wars  of  Rome  ? 

19.  How  did  they  obtain  peace  from  Augus- 

tus Ccesar  ? 

20.  Their  treatment  of  the  Chrislians? 

21.  What   native    Persian    at   length  drove 

them  from  the  country  ? 

22.  The  effect  of  this  revolution   on  Chris- 

tianity in  the  East  ? 

23.  TJie  line  between  ancient  and  modem 

history,  in  Asiatic  annals? 

Sec.  6. — History  of  Idumea,  and  its  Capital, 
Petra. 

1.  From   whom  were    the   Edomites  de- 

scended ? 

2.  The  advantages  of  their  situation  ? 

3.  Its  capital  city,  and  its  situation  ? 

4.  Describe  it. 

5.  The  prediction  of  Jeremiah  ? 

6.  Their  ports  and  commerce  ? 

7.  By  whom  were  they  subdued  ? 

8.  The  Scripture  account  of  Hadad  ? 

9.  With    whom    were    the    Edomites   fre- 

quently at  war? 

10.  Who  were  the  Idumeans,  and  the  Na- 

batheans  ? 

11.  The    expedition   of    Athenaius    against 

them,  and  its  results  ? 

12.  How  was  Demetrius  deterred  from  aveng- 

ing the  fate  of  his  general  ? 

13.  How  came  the  name  of  Idumean  to  be- 

come extinct  ? 

14.  How  was  Petra  ruined? 

15.  Recite  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah? 

Sec.  7. — History  of  the  Jews,  from  their 
Return  out  of  the  Babylonish  Captivity 
to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus. 

1.  How  many  Jews  returned  to  their  native 

land,  after  the  decree  of  Cyrus  ? 

2.  Their  governor  ? 

3.  The  Jewish  tradition  relative  to  this  re- 

turn ? 

4.  Aj)plication  of  the  Samaritans  ? 

5.  How  did  they  al'terwards  treat  the  Jews  t 
&  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Jews  ij 

Xerxes'  army  ? 
Who  was  the  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture  ^ 


22 


QUESTIONS    ON 


8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 

21. 
22. 
2.3. 
24. 

25. 
26. 
27. 

28. 
29. 

30. 

31. 

33. 

33. 
34. 
3.S. 
36. 
37. 
38 


Conduct  of  Hamaii,  and  his  end  f 

Who  was  Ezra '! 

What  great  work  did  he  perform? 

How  do  the  Jews  regard  him  ? 

His  successor  ? 

How  did  tlie  Jews  act  toward  Alexan- 
der ? 

How  did  Jndca  saff.n-  after  his  death  ? 

How  did  Jerusalem  suffer  under  Ptolemy 
Soter  ? 

The  high-priest  at  this  time,  and  his  cha- 
racter ? 

What  work  was  completed  under  his 
directions  ? 

What  sect  arose  about  this  time  ? 

Their  doctrines  ? 

What  version  of  the  Scriptures  was  made 


53.  History  of  liis  successor,  Alexander  Jan 


at  this  time  in  Egypt  ? 

Who  attempted  to  Hctlenize  the  Jews  ? 

Conduct  of  Simon,  and  of  Onias  ? 

How  did  Onias  lose  the  priesthood? 

State   of  the   nation   under  Jason's   ad- 
ministration ? 

Conduct  of  Jason? 

Of  his  brother  Menelaus  ? 

Cause  of  Onias'  death  ? 

Canye  of  the  riot  in  Jerusalem  ? 

How  were   the   deputies    to   Antiochus 
treated  ? 

How  did  the  Syrians  show  their  sense  of 
this  atrocity  ? 

Conduct  of  Jason  daring  the  Syrian  inva- 
sion of  Egypt  ? 

Antiochus"  dreadful   cruelty  towards  the 
Jews  ? 

His  awful  profanity? 

His  edict,  and  its  execution  ? 

His  cruelty  towards  the  fugitive  Jews  ? 

The  effect  of  their  noble  constancy 

Brave  conduct  of  Mattathias  ? 

How  did   the   wars  of  the    Maccabees 
commence  ? 
39.  Whom   did  Mattathias  appoint  his  suc- 
cessor ? 

The  origin  of  the  name,  "  Maccabees." 

Exploits  of  Judas  Maccabeus? 

How  long  had  the   temple   been  in  the 
hands  of  the  heathen  ? 

Conduct  of  the  Jewish  army  as  it  came 


40. 
41. 
42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 
47. 

48. 

49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 


m  sight  of  Jerusalem  ? 


The    circumstances    of    the    death     of 

Judas? 
His  funeral  ? 
His  successor  ? 
What  privilege   die",  he  obtain  from  tho 

Syrian  king? 
The  inscription  on  one  of  his  coins,  which 

has  been  preserved  ? 
His  death,  and  successor  ? 
Acts  of  his  administration  ? 
His  treatment  of  the  Pharisees  ? 
His   successor,    and   the    cause    of    his 

death  ? 


54. 
55. 
56. 

57. 

58. 

59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 


64. 

65. 
66. 

67. 
68. 
69. 

70. 

71. 


73. 

74. 
75. 
76. 

77. 

78. 
79. 

80. 

81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
6f. 
86. 
87. 
88 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 
96. 


nffius  '. 
History  of  his  two  sons? 
Conduct  of  Antipater  ? 
To  whom  was  the  decision  of  the  crown 

left? 
Conduct  of  Aristobulus  ' 
Conduct  of  the  Jews,  after  he  left  Jeru- 

saiem  ? 
How  did  Pompey  treat  Jerusalem  ? 
Who  was  now  supreme  in  Jerusalem  ? 
Conduct  of  Antipater  ? 
How  was  he  rewarded  by  Ctesar  ? 
The  condition  of  Judea  during  the  civil 

wars  of  the  Romans  after  the  death  of 

Pompey  ? 
Whom     did     Antony    make    king    of 

Judea  ? 
Why  were  the  Jev/s  opposed  to  him  ? 
Instances  of  his  cruelty  ? 
Age  of  Herod  at  his  death  ? 
Plis  successor,  his  history  ? 
Feelings  of  the  Jews  on  the  occasion  of 

Pilate's  entering  Jerusalem  ? 
How  did  Pilate  provoke  a  fresh  insurrec- 
tion ? 
The  state  of  society  in  Judea  during  his 

administration  ? 
What  forerunner  of  Christ  now  appearea 

in  Judea,  and  how  was  he  received  ? 
How  old  was  our   Lord  when  he  began 

to  preach  ? 
W^hat  occurred  at  his  baptism  ? 
Wicked  conduct  of  Herod  Antipas  ? 
His  conduct  toward  John  the  Baptist? 
For   what  pretended    crime   was   Jesus 

crucified  ? 
How  long   after  his  resurrection  did  he 

continue  with  his  disciples  ? 
How  many  persons  were  converted  by 

St.  Peter's  preaching,  on  the  day  of 

Pentecost  ?  ^ 

The  disinterested  conduct  of  the  Chris- 
tian community  ? 
Who  was  the  first  Christian  martyr? 
History  of  Paul's  conversion  ? 
End  of  Pontius  Pilate  ? 
History  of  Herod  Agrippa  ? 
Whichof  the  Apostles  did  he  put  to  death? 
His  end  ? 

Condition  of  Judea  after  his  death  ? 
Who  were  the  Sicarii  1 
Conduct  of  Felix  ? 
His  treatment  of  St.  Paul  ? 
Festus'  treatment  of  St.  Paul  ? 
Conduct  of  Florus,  the  last  governor  of 

Judea  ? 
Conduct  of  the  Jews  ? 
Why  did  the  Cliristians  retire  to  Pella, 

at  this  time  ? 
Who  was  sent  against  tlio  Jews  ? 
The  three  parties  in  Jerusalem,  and  theifl 

dissensions  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


2ft 


97.  To  what  clangor  was  Titus  exposed  ? 

98.  The  sullcriugrf  of  tlio  Jews  during  the 

KJege  of  Jerusalem? 
9!).  The  fate  of  Jerusalem  ? 
lUO.  The   number  of  captives,  and  of  the 
slain  ? 

101.  How  was  the  victory  of  Titus  celebrated 

in  Koine  ? 

102.  Describe  the  medal  struck,  commemo- 

rative of  the  event  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HISTORY    OF    ANCIENT    ITALY. 

&EC.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1.  The  boundaries  of  Italy  ? 

2.  Its  divisions  ? 

3.  Cisalpine  Gaul,  why  so  called  ? 

4.  Why  also  called  Gallia  Togata  ! 

5.  Tiie  principal  subalpine  tribes  ? 

6.  The  Cottian  Alps,  why  so  called  ? 

7.  The  chief  cities  of  Liguria  1 

8.  The  Ligurian  name  of  the  river  Po,  and 

why  so  called  ? 

9.  The  principal  towns  of  the  Boii? 

10.  The  limits  of  Gallia  Transpadana? 

11.  Of  Central  Italy  ? 

12.  What  countries  did  it  comprise  ? 

13.  The  boundaries  of  Etruria  ? 
14  How  was  it  divided  ? 

15.  The  limits  of  Latinm? 

16.  In  what  part  of  Italy  did  the  Greek  colo- 

nies locate  themselves  ? 

17.  For  what  has  Italy  ever  been  celebrated? 

18.  What  has    Italy  been,  and  what  is  it 

now  ? 

Sec.  2. — Historical  Notices  of  the  early  In- 
habitants of  Italy. 

1.  P>om  whom  were  the  earliest  inhabitants 

of  Italy  descended? 

2.  Of  what  two  languages  is  the  Latin  a 

compound  ? 

3.  The  origin  of  the  name  Sicily  ? 

4.  The  original  name  of  the  Latins  ? 

5.  ^Vhat  proof  is  given  that  the  serfs  were 

of  Falasgic  origin,  and  the  warriors  of 
Oscau  descent? 
G.  The  gods  of  the  ancient  Latins  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  Sabines  ? 

8.  Explain  the  "  Ver  Sacrum  ? " 

9.  Tli(!  history  of  the  Lucanians? 

10.  For  what  "were  the  Sabellian  tribes  dis- 

tinguished ? 

11.  W^hat   prevented  them  from  becoming 

predominant  in  Italy  ? 
12    To    what  did  the    Samnites  owe  their 
downfall  ? 

13.  The  origin  of  the  term  "  Imperator  ?  " 

14.  'What  gave  the  Romans  great  advantage 

over  the  Etruscans  ? 


15.  For  what  were  they  remarkable  ? 

16.  Who  annihilated  tlieir  navy  ? 

17.  Wiio  finally  subdued  them  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  their  ancient  works  ? 

19.  What  of  their  superstition  .' 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  Umbrians  ? 

21.  What  of  the  Mcssapians  ? 

22.  ^What  of  the  Ligurians? 

23.  Their  reputation  among  the  Romans  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Greek  Colonies  in  Italy. 

1.  The  earliest  Greek  settlement  in  Italy  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  city  of  CuniDB  ? 

3.  Its  history,  and  what  gave  it  iniportanco ! 

4.  By  whom  was  Tarentum  founded? 

5.  Its  history  1 

6.  By  whom  was  Croton  founded  ? 

7.  What  proof  of  its  power  is  given  1 

8.  The  design  of  the  Pythagorean  society  T 

9.  Ilowr  was  Croton  mined  ? 

10.  The  cause  of  the  power  of  Sybaris  ? 

11.  For  what  did  it  become  proverbial  ? 

12.  What  led  to  a  war  between  it  and  Cro- 

ton, and  the  result  of  it  ? 

13.  To  whom  did  the  Sybarites  then  apply 

for  aid  ? 

14.  What  city  did  they  then  found  ? 

15.  What  led  to  a  civil  war,  and  the  result 

of  it? 
16    The  subsequent  history  of  Thurium  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  Zalcucus  ? 

18.  Who  brought  the  Locrians  to  the  verge  ot 

ruin  ? 

19.  Its  subsequent  history  ? 

20.  By  whom  was  Rhegium  colonized  1 

21.  By  whom  destroyed  ? 

22.  By  whom  restored? 

23.  By  what  treachery  was  it  again  destroy- 

ed ? 

24.  How  were  the  traitors  punished  ? 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

HISTORY    OF    SICILY. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1.  Ancient  uaines  of  Sicily? 

2.  Origin  of  the   name  of  the  city   '•  Rhe- 

gium ?  " 

3.  For  what  are  the  straits  of  Messina  re- 

markable ? 

4.  The  extent  of  the  city  of  Syracuse  ? 

5.  Describe  the  prison  Latomia3  ? 

6.  What   is  said  of  the  fountain  of  Are- 

thusa  ? 

7.  The  origin  of  the  proverb  "  Remove  not 

Camarina?  " 

8.  Polybius'  account  of  Agrigentum  ? 

9.  The  most  remarkable  natural  object  is 

Sicily  ? 
10.   The  fiction  of  the  poets  respecting  it? 


u 


QUESTIONS    ON 


Sec, 

1. 
2. 
3! 

4. 
5. 
6. 


2. 
3. 


5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 
15. 

16. 
17. 
18. 

19. 


20. 
21. 
22. 


23. 

24. 

25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 


,  2. — Historical  Notices  of  the  ancient 
Inhabitants  of  Sicily. 

The  first  inhabitants  of  Sicily? 

The  character  they  bore  ? 

The  next  iu  antiquity? 

Who  came  next  ? 

Who  was  .Eolus  ? 

The  fate  of  Deucetius,  the  most  renown- 
ed king  of  the  Siculi  ? 

How  were  the  Siculi  treated  by  the  Sy- 
racusans  ? 

How  were  they  treated  by  the  tyrant 
Dionysius  ? 

By  whom  was  their  hidependence  re- 
stored ? 

Sec.  3. — The  History  of  Syracuse. 

When  and  by  whom  was  Syracuse 
founded  ? 

Its  original  form  of  government  ? 

Under  what  circumstances  was  it  chang- 
ed? 

The  consequences  of  Gelon's  wise  ad- 
ministration ? 

Who  applied  to  him  for  aid  ? 

What  demand  did  he  make  ? 

With  what  forces  did  the  Carthaginians 
invade  Sicily  ? 

By  what  stratagem  did  Gelon  entirely 
overthrow  them  ? 

How  was  he  regarded  by  his  subjects 
after  his  death  ? 

His  successor,  and  what  is  said  of  his 
administration  ? 

What  signal  and  important  naval  victory 
did  he  gain  ? 

V.'hat  led  to  a  revolution  in  the  govern- 
ment ? 

What  was  petalism,  and  what  were  its 
consequences  ? 

Who  invaded  Sicily  at  this  time  ? 

What  circumstance  led  to  a  series  of 
sanguinary  wars? 

What  is  said  of  Dionysius  I.  ? 

His  death,  and  his  successor  ? 

The  character  and  conduct  of  Dionysius 
II.? 

W^hat  compelled  the  Syracusaus  to  ap- 
ply for  aid  to  their  parent  city,  Co- 
rinth ? 

Who  was  sent  to  them  ? 

The  consequences  of  his  death  ? 

What  led  the  Syracusans  afterwards  to 
invoke  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epi- 
rus  ? 

His  conduct  iu  Sicily  ? 

To  whom  was  the  Syracusau  throne 
finally  otTered  ? 

What  is  said  of  his  administration  ? 

What  led  to  the  destruction  of  Syracuse? 

Who  was  Archimedes  ? 

How  diJ  the  Romans  govern  Syracuse  ? 

To  what  was  this  owing  ? 


CHAPTER    XV 

raSTORY    OF   THE    ROMAN    REPUBLIC. 

Sec.  1. —  Traditions  respecting  the   Origin 
of  the  Romans. 

1.  The  origin  of  the  Romans  according  to 

the  ancient  legends  ? 

2.  What  proves  that  they  were  partly  of 

Pelasgic  origin? 

3.  The  probable  foundation  of  these  ancient 

legends  ? 

4.  Repeat  the  substance  of  them. 

5.  The  story  of  Numitor  and  Amulius  7 

6.  The  story  of  Romulus  and  Remus  ? 

7.  Cause  of  the  quarrel  between  them,  and 

its  results  ? 

8.  Date  of  the  building  of  Rome. 

9.  Its  original  size,  &:.c.  ? 

Sec.  2. — From  the  Foundation  of  the  City 
to  the  Abolition  of  Royalty. 

1.  How  did  Romulus   procure   inhabitants 

for  his  new  city  ? 

2.  Form  of  its  government  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  tie  of  patron  and 

client  ? 

4.  How  did  Romulus  obtain  wives  for  his 

subjects  ? 

5.  Story  of  Tarpeia. 

6.  What  led  to  a  peace  between  Romulus 

and  Tatius,  and  the  terms? 

7.  What  is  said  of  these  and  other  legends? 

8.  The  stor>'  of  Romulus'  death  ? 

9.  His  successor  and  his  character? 
10.  His  principal  acts  ? 

n.  Successor  of  Numa,  and  his  character? 

12.  How  was  the  war  between  the  Romans 

and  Albans  tenninated? 

13.  Conduct  of  the  surviving  Horatius? 

14.  The  fate  of  Alba  and  the  cause  of  it? 

15.  The  successor  of  Tullus  ? 

16.  His  principal  acts? 

17.  The  successor  of  Ancus  Martius  ? 

18.  WHio  was  Tarquinius  Priscus  ? 

19.  How  did  he  secure  the  throne? 

20.  How    was    his    difficulty    with    Attua 

NiEvius  compromised  ? 

21.  What  public  works  rendered  his  name 

illustrious  ? 

22.  How  did  he  console   the  people  under 

their  toils  ? 

23.  The  cause  and  manner  of  his  death  ? 

24.  Wlio  was  Ser\'ius  Tullius,  his  successor  7 

25.  What  is  said  of  him  as  a  statesman? 

26.  Mention  some  of  his  acts? 

27.  How  was  he  regarded  by  the  patricians  s 

28.  The  circumstances  of  his  death,  and  the 

conduct  of  his  son-in-law  and  daughter? 

29.  Character    and    acts    of    Tarquiu    tha 

Proud? 

30.  Cause  of  his  banishment? 

31.  Conduct  of  Brutus  ? 


ANCIENT     HISTORY. 


26 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 

]3. 

14. 

15. 


18. 
19. 


Bkc.  3. — From  the  Establishment  of  the 
Roman  Republic  to  the  Burning  of  the 
City  by  the  Gauls. 

1.  Nature  oCthe  government  that  succeeded 

the  monarchy  ? 

2.  \\'hat  consjiiracy   was  soon   afterwards 

detected,  and  hy  what  means  'I 

3.  The  conduct  of  the  consul  Brutus  ? 

4.  Who  were  banished,  and  wliy  ? 

5.  Popular  conduct  of  Valerius  '.' 

6.  With  whom  did  the  Romans  now  make 

a  treaty  ? 

7.  The  possessions  of  Rome  at  this  time  ? 

8.  The  legend  of  Horatius  Codes? 
The  legend  of  Mucins  Scaavola  1 
The  legend  of  Cloelia  ? 
What  is  said  of  these  legends  1 
The  cause  of  the  Sabine  war  that  fol- 
lowed, and  its  results  ? 

Oppressive  conduct  of  the  patricians,  and 

its  eficcts  1 
Who  was    appointed    dictator,    and   his 

acts? 
The  second  dictator? 

16.  What  occasioned  still  greater  discontent  ? 

17.  (/onduct  of  the  plebeians  ? 
How  were  the  ditHculties  settled  ? 
What  facts  arc  manifest  from  the  treaties 

made  about  this  time  with  the  Latins 
and  Hernicans? 

20.  Legend  of  Coriolauus  ? 

21.  What  was  tlie  agrarian  law  proposed  by 

Spurius  Cassius  ? 

22.  The  fate  of  Spurius  ? 

23.  What  remarkable  circumstance  is  men- 

tioned ? 

24.  What  led  to  a  change  of  policy  on  the 

part  of  the  Fabii  ? 

25.  The  fate  of  the  family  ? 

26.  Progress  of  the  Etruscans  ? 

27.  Conjecture  of  Niebuhr? 

28.  Conduct  of  Genuciiis,  th«  tribune  ? 

29.  Conduct  of  the  patricianst 

30.  What  frustrated  their  plans  ? 

31  How  did  Volero  Publius  destroy  the 
supremacy  of  the  patrician  faction  ? 

32.  '  onduct  of  Appius  Claudius? 

33  •  )f  v.'hat  act  of  cruel  vengeance  was  he 
guilty  ? 

34.  How  did  he  escape  the  penalty  of  his 

tyranny  ? 

35.  Boldness  of  Appius  Herdonius? 

36  Bad  faith  of  the  senate  ? 

37  On  what  occasion  was  Cincinnatus  made 

dictator  ? 

38.  How  did  ho  use  his  office  ? 

39.  What    conjecture    has    been   hazarded 

respecting  his  dictatorship  ? 

40.  What    privilege    was   obtained   for   the 

people  through  the  exertions  of  Siccius 
Dentatus  ? 

41.  The  history  of  the  twelve  tables  ? 

42.  Who  were  the  decemvirs  ? 


4G. 

47. 

48. 

49. 
50. 
51. 


43.  What  led  to  their  overthrow  ? 

44.  How    was   the    tribunician     power    in- 

creased ? 

45.  Cause  and  manner  of  the  death  of  Spuriiw 

Mffilius  ? 
Cause  of  the  Veientine  war  ? 
By  whom  and  in  what  manner  was  Veil 

taken  ? 
What  return  was   made  to  Camillus  for 

his  great  services  ? 
Cause  of  the  Gallic  war? 
The  result  of  the  first  battle  ? 
What  did  the  Romans  do  after  this  ? 
How   were    the   Gauls   prevented   from 

taking  the  citadel  ? 

53.  WHiat  ransom  was  paid  for  the  city? 

54.  How  do  the  ordinary  legend  and  Poly 

bins  agree? 

Sec.  4. — From  the  Rebuilding  of  the  City 
to  the  first  Punic  War. 

1.  The  state   of  Rome  after  the  departure 

of  the  Gauls  ? 

2.  The  wishes  of  the  citizens,  and  how  were 

they    prevented   from    carrying   them 
into  effect  ? 

3.  The  fate  of  Manlius  ? 

4.  The   strength   of  the  patricians  at  this 

time,  and  the  probable  consequences? 

5.  The  renovators  of  the   Roman  constitu- 

tion ? 

6.  What  three  bills  were  brought  forward 

by  Licinius  ? 

7.  How   did    the    patricians   endeavour   to 

frustrate  his  designs? 

8.  How  did  they  modify  his  demands  ? 

9.  In  what  important  contest  did  the  Ro- 

mans now  engage  ? 

1 0.  The  cause  of  the  war  ? 

11.  What  led  to  a  war  with  the  Latins? 

12.  The  decree  of  Manlius,  and  the  reason 

for  it  ? 

13.  The    first   offender,    and   how    was    he 

treated  ? 

14.  The  result  of  this  war  ? 

15.  What    confederacy    was    now    formed 

against  the  Romans  ? 

16.  The  disaster  of  the  Roman  army  1 

17.  The  advice  of  Pontius'  father? 

18.  How  were  the  Romans  treated? 

19.  The  result  of  the  war? 

20.  Who  finally  subdued  the  Saninites? 

21.  The  conduct  of  the  two  Dccii  ? 

22.  Why  was  war  proclahued  against  Ta- 

rentum  ? 

23.  What  Grecian  king  was  summoned  to 

Tarentum  to  defend  it? 

24.  His  motives  for  coming  to  Italy  ? 

25.  To  what  circumstance  did  Pyrrhus  ow« 

his  first  victory  ? 

26  The  results  of  the  first  campaign  ? 

27  Pyrrhus'  remark  after  his  second  victory  I 

28  Whither  did  he  then  go  ? 


26 


QUESTIONS   ON 


29.  "VMiat  brought  him  back  to  Italy  ? 

30.  The  result  of  his  third  battle  ? 

31.  The  termiuatiou  of  the  war? 

Sec.  5. — From  the  Coinmencement  of  the 
Funic  Wars  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Civil 
Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi. 


The  cause  of  the  first  Punic  war  ? 
Policy  of  Hioro,  Itiug  oi""  Syracuse? 
Eftbrts  of  the  Cartliagiuians  ? 


What  strong  city  did  the  Romans  cap- 
ture in  Sicily? 
5    How   did   they    learn   the    art   of    ship 
building  ? 

6.  How  did  Duilius  obtain  a  naval  victory 

over  the  Carthaginians? 

7.  What  grand  enterprise  did  the  Romans 

now  undertake  ? 

8.  How  did  they  prepare  for  it  ? 

i).  What  turned  the  fortune  of  war? 

10.  What  successive  losses  did  the  Romans 

sustain? 

11.  Conduct  of  Regulus  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  his  death? 

1.3.  What  great  naval  victory  did  Catulus 
gain  ? 

14.  ^Vliat   led   to   a   peace,   and    the    terms 

of  it  ? 

15.  In  wliat  important  war  did  the  Romans 

soon  afterwards  engage? 

16.  What  reputation  did  they  gain  by  their 

success  ? 

17.  What  led  to  a  second  Punic  war  ? 

18.  What  oath  did  Hannibal  take  when   a 

boy? 

19.  His  first  victory  over  the  Romans? 

20.  His  second  victory,  and  its  results  ? 

21.  ilis  third  great  victory  ? 

22.  Policy  of  Fabius? 
Hanuibars  fourth  and  greatest  victory  ? 
The  eflect  of  his  sojourn  in  Capua  ? 
When  did  success  first  dawn  on  the  Ro- 
mans ? 

What  two  cities  in  Sicily  did  they  cap- 
ture ? 
The  fate  of  Asdrubal  ? 
Policy  of  Scipio? 

29.  How  did  he  outwit  Syphax  ? 

30.  His  successive  victories  ? 
What  prevented  a  peace,  on  Hannibal's 

return  ? 
Where  was  the  last  battle  fought? 

33.  The  result  of  it  ? 

34.  The  terms  of  peace  ? 

3.5.  How  was  Scipio  honoured? 
36.  The    next   war   in   which  the  Romans 
were  engaged  ? 

37  Success  of  the  consul  Flamiiiius? 

38  Who  caused  a  renewal  of  the  wars  in 

Greece  ? 

39.  By  whom  was  ho  instigated? 

40.  W'hcre   did  the   Romans   gain   a 

victory  over  the  Syrians? 


23, 
24 
25 

26 

27 

28, 


31 
32 


signal 


Where  was  he  entirely  overthrown  T 
On  what  terms  did  he  obtain  peace  ? 
The  fate  of  Hannibal? 
How  were  the  Scipios  treated  on  theil 

return  homo? 
What  is  said  of  the  Bacchanalians  ? 
What  new  war  now  broke  out,  and  its 

result  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  triumph  of  iEmilius 

Paulus? 
Cato's    motives    in   wishing    to    destroy 

Carthage  ? 
The  pretext  Ii.r  the  war  ? 
How   did  the  Carthaginians  attempt  to 

avert  their  fate  ? 
How  ditf  they  afterwards  obtain  arms  ? 
Describe  the  siege  ? 
Scipio's  feelings  on  viewing  Carthage  in 

flames  ^ 
Story  of  AsdrubaPs  wife  ? 
The  origin  of  the  war  which  proved  fatal 

to  the  independence  of  Greece  ? 
The  fate  of  Coriuth  ? 
What  other  cities  soon  afterwards  shared 

the  same  fate  ? 
What  story  is  told  of  Mummius? 
What  protracted  the  war  in  Spain  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  valour  of  the  Celtibe- 

rians  and  Lusitanians  ? 
What  is  said  of  their  leader,  Viriatus  ? 
Conduct  of  Pompey  in  Spain  ? 
Policy  of  Scipio  jEmilianus  ? 
His  success? 
What  province  in  Asia  did  the  Romans 

now  obtain,  and  in  what  manner  ? 
The  fruits  of  this  acquisition  ? 


41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 
50. 

51. 
52. 
53. 

54. 
55. 

56. 
57. 

58. 
59. 
60. 

61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 

66. 

Seg.  6. — From  the  Beginning  of  the  Civil 
Dissensions  vnder  the  Gracchi  to  the 
Downfall  of  the  Republic  and  Death  of 
Pompey. 

1.  What  gradual   change  did  the  govern 

ment  undergo,  during  the  Punic,   Ma 
cedonian,  and  Spanish  wars? 

2.  In  what  way  did  the  aristocracy  acquire 

so  much  wealth? 

3.  How  did  Tiberius  Gracchus  attempt  to 

check  the  progress  of  corruption  ? 

4.  What  was  his  first  step  ? 

5.  How  did  the  nobles  attempt  to  thwart 

his  purposes  ? 

6.  Tiberius  Gracchus'  next  step  ? 

7.  By  what  proposal  was  this  followed  ? 

8.  What  led  to  his  death  ? 
Who  was  his  murderer  ? 
His  subsequent  career  ? 
In  what  two  wars  did  the  Romans  now 

eno-age,  and  by  what  means  were  they 
terminated  ? 
Who  now  determined  to  follow  the  ex 
ample  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  ? 

13.  By  whom  was  he  urged  on  ? 

14.  How  did  he  ccmmence  his  career? 


9. 
10. 
11. 


12 


ANCIENT    HISTORY 


27 


15.  What  chango  did  he  make  in  the  govern- 

ineut  ? 
IG.  How  did  the  senate  endeavoiir  to  tliwart 

him  ? 

17.  What  accident  precipitated  the  stnipjgle? 

18.  The  death  of  Cains  Gracchus,   and  the 

condnct  of  Opiniins  ? 

19.  What  followed  the  death  of  the  Gracchi? 

20.  How  did  the  senate  show  their  venaUty 

in  the  .Tugurthine  war? 

21.  How  did  Jugnrtiia  act  in  Rome,  and  the 

consequence  ? 

22.  His  success,  and  its  effect  in  Rome  ? 

23.  Who  was  sent  against  him  ? 

24.  By  whom  was  he  supplanted? 

25.  The  success  of  Marius  ? 

26.  The  suhscquent  fate  of  Jugurtha  ? 

27.  What    hordes    were    now    devastating 

Transalpine  Gaul  ? 

28.  By  whom  were  they  subdued  ? 

29.  What  war  had  been  waged  in  Sicily  ? 

30.  How  were  the  insurgents  punished? 

31.  What   still    more   danjrerous    war    now 

broke  out  ? 

32.  How  many  men  perished  in  this  war, 

and  how  was  tranquillity  restored  ? 

33.  What  new  enemy  now  arose  in  Asia  ? 

34.  Who  was  appointed  to  command  in  this 

war  ? 

35.  Between  what  parties  did  the  first  civil 

war  now  break  out  ? 

36.  Conduct  of  Marius  in  Rome  1 

37.  Sylla's  sr.ccess  in  Asia? 

38.  What  led  to  a  peace  ? 

39.  Conduct  of  Sylla  in  Rome  ? 

40.  What  office  did  he  usurp  ? 

41.  Cause  of  his  death  ? 

42.  The  conduct  and  end  of  the  consul  L^e- 

pidus  ? 

43.  What  \t  U'  now  broke  out  in  Spain  ? 

44.  Who  was  sent  against  Sertorius  ? 

45.  What  led  to  its  termination  ? 

46.  Who  was  Spartacus,  and  his  deeds? 

47.  By  whom  was  he  crushed  ? 

48.  Conduct  of  Crassus  and  Pompey  ? 

49.  What  was  the  Manilian  law  ? 

50.  What  was  Fompey's  success  in  Asia  ? 

51.  Who  was  Catiline,   and  what  was  the 

object  of  his  conspiracy  ? 

52.  By  whom,  and  in  what  manner,  was  his 

conspiracy  detected  ? 
63.  The  fate  of  the  conspirators  ? 

54.  Who  protested  against  their  execution  ? 

55.  What  honourable  title  was  conferred  on 

Cicero  ? 

56.  The  first  triumvirate  ? 

57.  By  v.'hom  were  they  supported,  and  from 

what  motives? 

58.  How  did  he  succeed  ? 

59.  What  first  disturbed  the   union  of  the 

triumvirs  ? 

60.  By  what  v/as  it  broken  ? 

61.  Caesar's  military  exploits  ? 


62.  Pompey's  conduct  toward  him  ? 

63.  How  did  the  contest  between  the&e  two 

commanders  commence  ? 

64.  What   bribes   had    Ccesar   paid    over  to 

Caius  Curio  ? 

65.  How  did  ho  embarrass  the  senate  ? 

66.  The  decree  of  the  senate  ? 

67.  Cffisar's  conduct  on  receiving  this  intelli- 

gence ? 

68.  Conduct  of  Pompey's  party  ? 

69.  How  long  did  it  take  CaBsar  to  subdue 

Italy? 

70.  His  subsequent  victories? 

71.  What  oflice  was  conferred  on  him  on  his 

return  to  Rome  ? 

72.  When,  and  where  was  fought  the  great 

battle    that    decided   the    fate    of    the 
world  ? 

73.  The  fate  of  Pompey  ? 

74.  The  fate  of  his  remains  ? 

Sec.  7. — The  Establishment  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 

1.  The  effect  of  the  news  of  Pompey'a 
death  ? 

Who  renewed  the  war? 

How  did  Cffisar  show  his  disapprobation 
of  Egyptian  treachery  ? 

What  fresh  danger  did  he  incur  in 
Egypt  ? 

What  lamentable  catastrophe  occurred 
in  Alexandria? 

CjEsar's  letter  to  Rome  ? 

The  state  of  affairs  in  Rome,  and  by 
what  occasioned  ? 

The  fate  of  Cato  ? 

How  long  was  Csesar  occupied  aboul 
the  African  war? 

Adulation  of  the  senate  ? 

To  what  dangers  was  Cajsar  exposed  in 
Spain  ? 

What  vast  designs  did  ho  now  con  tern- 
plate  ? 

How  did  he  offend  his  countrymen  ? 

Cffisar's  death  ? 

The  conduct  of  Brutus,  and  of  the  "-en- 
ate,  at  his  address? 

Effect  of  Antony's  speech  ? 

Conduct  of  Antony  toward  the  con- 
spirators ? 

The  second  triumvirate  ? 

The  fate  of  Cicero  ? 

The  theatre  of  the  new  civil  war,  and 
its  results  ? 

Conduct  of  Antony  and  Octavius  ? 

By  whom  was  Antony  completely  en- 
slaved? 

Policy  of  Octavius  ? 

Conduct  of  Antony  toward  his  wife  Ful- 
via? 

How  was  a  reconciliation  cffeeted  be* 
twcen  Octavius  and  Antony  >. 

Further  course  of  Octavius  and  Antony 


2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 
9. 

10. 
11. 

12. 

13. 
14. 
15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 
26. 


28 


Q0E3TIONS    ON 


27. 

•28. 

29. 
30. 

31. 

32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 

36. 

37. 
38. 
39. 

40. 


Wliat  led  to  a  war  ? 

Where  was  the  decisive  battle  fought  ? 
and  describe  it. 

Conduct  of  Antony  1 

Intentions  of  Cleopatra,  and  how  frus- 
trated ? 

Kow  did  Cleopatra  show  her  energj', 
and  Antony  liis  weakness  ? 

Progress  of  Octaviiis  ? 

What  led  to  Antony's  death  ? 

What  to  Cleopatra's ' 

What  use  did  Octavius  make  of  th!9 
treasures  of  E<rypt  ? 

What  name  was  now  conferred  on  Oc- 
tavius by  the  Roman  senate  ? 

The  era  of  the  Roman  Empire  ? 

"What  is  said  of  the  title  Augustus? 

Wliat  was  the  title  after  the  time  of  Dio- 
eiesiaa  ? 

When  was  Roman  liberty  really  des- 
troyed ? 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

6E0GBAPHICAL    AND     POLITICAL    CONDITION    OF 
THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Sec.  1. — European  Countries. — Spain. 

1.  The  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  ? 

2.  The    Greek    name    of    Spain,    and    its 

origin  ? 

3.  Its  divisions? 

4.  For  what  were  the  inhabitants  of  the 

Baledres  islands  celebrated  ? 

Sec.  2. —  Transalpine  Gaul. 

1.  The  boundaries  of  Gaul  ? 

2.  The  religion  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

3.  Describe  its  rites  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  valour  of  the  Gauls? 

5.  Their  conduct  after  their  subjugation  by 

Ccesar? 

6.  What  remains  of  Roman  works  are  found 

in  Gaul  ? 

Sec.  3. — Britain. 

1.  By  what  tribes  was  Britain  colonized? 

2.  For  what  was  the  island  of  Mona  cele- 

brated ? 

3.  How  was  it  attempted  to  check  the  in- 

cursions of  the  Picts  and  Scots  ? 

4.  The  dimensions  of  the  last  wall  built  by 

the  Emperor  Severus  ? 
5    Wliat  progress   had  the  inhabitants  of 
Britain  made  in  civilization,  when  first 
visited  by  the  Romans  ■ 

6.  Describe  their  chariots  ? 

7.  Their  religion,  and  government? 

8.  When  was   Britain   abandoned   by   the 

Romans  ? 

Sec.  4. — The  Northern  Procinces  of  the 

Empire. 
I    Boundaries  of  Vindelicia  ? 


2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 


Its  principal  towns  ? 
Boundaries  of  Rhmtia  ? 
Character  of  its  inhabitants  ? 
Boundaries  of  Noricum  ? 
Boundaries  of  MiEsia  ? 
Inhabitants  of  Dacia,  how  calleo  Oy  lh« 
Greeks,  and  by  the  Romans? 

8.  What  is  said  of  Thrace  ? 

9.  What  of  Illyricum,  and  its  inhabitants  ? 

Sec.  5. — Asiatic  and  African  Provinces. 

1    The  Roman  provinces  in  Anatolia  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  them  ? 

3.  What  proof  is  given  of  private  wealth? 

4.  The  African  provinces  ? 

5.  Wliat  is  said  of  the  Gietulians? 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  attention  paid  by  the 

Romans  to  commerce  in  the  East  ? 

7.  The  cause  of  this  neglect  ? 

8.  What  proof  is  given  of  such  being  tho 

cause  ? 

9.  ^Vhat  is  said  of  the  division  of  the  Roman 

empire  ? 

Sec.  6. — The  Principal  Nations  on  the 
Frontiers  of  the  Empire. 

1.  AMiat  is  said  of  the  names  Germany,  and 

Sarmatia  ? 

2.  What  of  the  name  Scj-thia  ? 

3.  The  meaning  of  the  word  Gcnnansl 

4.  Origin  of  the  name  Dutch  ? 

5.  INIention  the  names  of  some  of  the  Ger- 

man tribes. 

6.  Origin  of  the  name  Longobardi  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  Franks  ? 

8.  ^Miat,  of  the  religion  of  the  Germans  ? 

9.  Their  notion  of  future  happiness  ? 

10.  Repeat  the  death-song  of  Lodbrog. 

11.  How  was  the  most  solemn  oath  of  th« 

Germans  taken  ? 

12.  How  was  India  divided  ? 

13.  The  ancient   naine  of  Malacca,  and  of 

the  island  of  Ceylon  ? 

Sec.  7. — Topography  of  the  City  of  Rome. 

1.  The  original  form  of  the  city  of  Rome  ? 

2.  ^\^lat  was  the  Pomcerium? 

3.  Origin  of  this  custom  ? 

4.  The  form  of  marking  the  Pomcerium? 

5.  Origin  of  the  term  porta,  a  gate  ? 

6.  How  was  the  comitium  consecrated  ? 

7.  The  names  of  the  seven  hills  on  which 

Rome  was  built  ? 

8.  WTio  first  fortified   the   city  with   out- 

works ? 

9.  The  works  of  Tarqninius  Priscus  ? 

10.  The  boast  of  Augustus  Ca^-ar? 

11.  Roman  taste  for  the  fine  arts  at  the  timo 

of  the  destruction  of  Corinth  ? 

12.  Circumference  of  Rome,  and  number  of 

its  gates  ? 

13.  Its  most  remarkable  buildings  ? 

14.  Its  first  amphitheatre,  how  large  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTOUT. 


2» 


15. 

16. 

17 

18. 

19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

24. 

25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 

30. 
31. 
32. 

33. 

34. 
35. 


Tlie  Capitol,  why  so  culled  ? 

How  ol'tcu  destroyed  ;  and  by  whom  re- 
built ? 

What  celebrated  books  wcro  preserved 
in  the  sanctuarj'  ? 

What  curious  custom  was  observed  in 
rojrard  to  the  capitol  ? 

What  wore  the  spolia  opimal 

Niebuiir'y  theory  'I 

Where  was  the  forum  situated  ? 

What  were  the  basiliccB  ? 

Origin  of  the  phrase,  "  to  mount  the  ros- 
trum ?  " 

The  legend  of  the  Curtiau  lake  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  temple  of  Janus? 

What  was  the  Palladium? 

What  was  the  Campus  Martius  ? 

How  was  it  ornamented? 

What  was  the  Pantheon  ;  and  by  whom 
built? 

What  is  said  of  the  Roman  aqueducts  ? 

How  many  were  erected  ? 

Mention  the  number  of  public  buildings 
in  Rome  ;  and  what  they  were. 

Mention  some  of  the  public  roads  in 
Italy. 

The  extent  of  the  Appian  road. 

How  did  Rome  compare  with  Athens  ? 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

HISTORY   OF   THE    ROMAN   EMPIRE. 

Sec.  1. —  The  Reigns  of  the  Family  of  the 
Ccesars. 

1.  Difference  between  the  early  and  latter 

character  of  Augustus  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  his  administration  ? 

3.  Origin  of  the  sacra  decennalia  1 

4.  Augustus  Caesar's  treatment  of  his  sol- 

diers ? 

5.  The  standing  army  of  the  empire  ? 

6.  What  were  the  praetorian  bands  ? 

7.  The  revenues  of  the  empire? 

8.  What  new  cities  did  Augustus  found  ? 

9.  What  ambassadors  came  to  Augustus? 
!G.  How  was  his  person  rendered  sacred? 

11.  The  effect  of  this  dignity  ? 

12.  What  honour  paid  him  was  the  most  gra- 

tifying of  all  ? 

13.  What  conquests  did  he  make  ? 

14.  What  prevented  him  from  resigning  at 

the  end  of  the  second  deconnaria? 

15.  What  domestic  calamity  did  he  have  to 

endure  ? 

16.  What  event  occurred  at  the  closing  of 

the  temple  of  Janus  ? 

17.  What  provoked  a  rebellion  of  the  Ger- 

mans ? 

18.  What  great  overthrow  did  the  Romans 

receive  in  Germany? 

19.  How  was  Augustus  affected  at  this  loss  ? 


20.  The   time,   place,   and   manner  of  his 

death  ? 

21.  His  successor;  and  how  did  he  begin  hia 

his  reign  ? 

22.  How  did  ho  treat  Gcrmanicus? 

23.  The  cause  of  Germanicus'  death  ' 

24.  How  wore  the  Romans  affected  when 

his  ashes  were  brought  to  the  city  1 

25.  Who  was  Sejanus,   and  what  wau  hi& 

conduct  ? 

26.  How  was  ho  outwitted  by  the  emperor  ? 

27.  How  was  he  treated  ? 

28    Repeat  the  passage  from  Juvenal,  ou  his 
death. 

29.  Tiberius'  subsequent  conduct 

30.  His  successor,  and  his  characte.r1^ 

31.  What  distinguished  person  suffered  death 

in  Judoa,  in  his  reign  ? 

32.  Cause  of  Caligula's  early  popularity? 

33.  How  did  he  begin  his  reign? 

34.  His  conduct  after  his  sickness  ? 

35.  Mention  some  of  his  follies  ? 

36.  His  death  ? 

37.  His  successor,  and  his  character? 

38.  His  favourites,  and  their  conduct  ? 

39.  What  e.xpedition  did  ho  undertake? 

40.  The  conduct  of  McBsalina,  and  her  pun- 

ishment? 

41.  The  conduct  of  Agrippina  ? 

42.  How  did  she  secure  the  succession  for 

her  sou  Nero? 

43.  How  old  was  Nero  when  he  began  his 

reign  ? 

44.  Who  was  Poppaea  Sabina  ? 

45.  What  great  crime  did  she  instigate  Nero 

to  commit  ? 

46.  How  did  Seneca  disgrace  himself  ? 

47.  Of  what  succession  of  crimes  was  Nero 

now  guilty  ? 

48.  His  treatment  of  the  Christians,  and  the 

pretext  for  it  ? 

49.  How  did  he  exhaust  the  exchequer  ? 

50.  To  what  extortion  did  this  lead  ? 

51.  What  pretext  did  lie  avail  himself  of  to 

give  loose  to  his  sanguinary  disposition  ? 

52.  Why  did  not  the  Roman  people  revolt  ? 

53.  His  conduct  in  Greece  ? 

54.  What  dreadful  rebellion  broke  out  at  this 

time? 

55.  What   insurrrection  burst  forth   iv  the 

West  ? 

56.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  his  death- 

57.  Who  rebelled  in  Britain  ? 

58.  With  whom  did  the  family  of  the  Cteaare 

end  ? 

59.  The  consequences  of  its  extinction  ? 

Sec.  2. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  Julian, .. 
to  that  of  the  first  Flavian  Fainily. 

1.  Nero's  successor,  and  his  character. 

2.  Conduct  and  fate  of  Nymphidiud  7 

3.  Whom  did  Galba  adopt  ? 

4.  His  fate,  and  that  of  Galba? 


80 


QUESTIONS    ON 


5.  Who  opposed  Otho? 

6.  Otho's  conduct  ? 

7.  The  result  of  the  battle,  and  where  was 

it  fought  ? 

8.  Otho's  purpose  and  conduct  ? 

9.  Conduct  of  Vitellius  ? 

10.  How  much  money  did  he  spend  in  the 

pleasures  of  the  table  in  four  months  ? 

11.  By  what  act  did  he  give  scandal  to  the 

higher  ranks  ? 

12.  Who  revolted  against  him  in  the  East  ? 

13.  What  generals  headed  Vespasian's   ar- 

mies V 

14.  Conduct  of  Csecina? 

1,').  What  city  was  talien  and  destroyed  by 
primus  ? 

16.  What  caused  Vitellius  to  be  abandoned 

by  his  troops  ? 

17.  What  calamity  happened  to  the  city  at 

this  time  ? 

18.  The  manner  of  Vitellius'  death. 

19.  Conduct  of  Primus  and  Domitiau  ? 

20.  Vespasian's  first  care? 

21.  His  second  step  ? 
J2.  His  next  reform  ? 
2.9    His  only  fault? 

24.  What  ancient  city  was  destroyed  by  his 

son  Titus  ? 
,15.  Tlie   condition  of  the  Jews  since  that 

period  ? 

26.  What  monument  of  their  destruction  still 

remains  ? 

27.  What  great  general  was,  at  this  time, 

distinguishing  himself  in  Britain? 

28.  His  policy  ? 

29.  What  discovery  did  he  make  ? 

30.  What  brought  on  Vespasian's  last  sick- 

ness ? 

31.  What  is  said  of  him  ? 

32.  By  what  ludicrous  circumstance  was  the 

solemnity  of  his  obsequies  disturbed  ? 

33.  Titus'  first  act  aix^:  his  accession  ? 

34.  What  other  instances  of   his   complai- 

sance are  mentioned  ? 

35.  What  dreadful  calamity  happened  in  his 

reign  ? 

36.  What  cities  were  overwhelmed  ? 

37.  How  did  he  gain  the  title  of  "  Benefactor 

of  the  human  race  ?  " 

38.  What  occasioned  his  death  ? 

39.  How  was  the  news  of  it  received  ? 

40.  What  is  said  of  Domitian,  his  successor? 

41.  His  first  acts  ? 

42.  His  expedition  against  the  Catti  ? 

43.  His  treatment  of  Agricola  ? 
4«1.  His  subsequent  conduct  ? 

45.  His  disgraceful  treaty  with  Decebalus  ? 

46.  How  was  his  cruelty  stimulated  ? 

47.  What  edict  did  he   issue  against  leani- 

ing  ? 

48.  Why  had  he  no  fear  of  rebellion  ? 

49.  His  treatment  of  the  Christians? 

50.  What  led  to  his  assa-ssinatioa  ? 


51.  Who  was  Apollonius  Tyaneus? 

52.  The  fate  of  his  system  ? 

Sec.  3. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  firsi 
Flavian  Family,  to  the  last  of  the  Antonines 

1.  By  whom  was  Domitian  succeeded  ? 

2.  His  native  country,  and  his  character? 

3.  What  indignity  was  put  on  him  by  hia 

soldiers  ? 

4.  What  good  effect  did  this  produce  ? 

5.  What  occasioned  his  death  ? 

6.  Trajan's  country  and  family  ? 

7.  What  services  did  he  render  the  people  ? 

8.  What  war  did  he  soon  engage  in,  and  his 

conduct  ? 

9.  What  groat  work  did  he  construct  T 

10.  His  success  in  the  Dacian  war  ? 

1 1.  What  made  him  ambitious  of  conquest  ? 

12.  What  countries  did  he  subdue  ? 

13.  How  were  the  Jews  treated  ? 

14.  How  long  did  Trajan  reign,  and  whan 

and  where  did  he  die  ? 

15.  With  what  blot  is  his  character  stained? 

16.  His  successor,  and  how  was  he  chosen? 

1 7.  His  first  steps  ? 

18.  What  tour  did  he  enter  upon  ? 

19.  His  work  in  Britain? 

20.  His  terrible  treatment  of  the  Jews  ? 

21.  What  was  the  edictmn  ferpetuuml 

22.  His  munificence  towards  Athens  ? 

23.  The  inscription  on  the  medal  struck  to 

his  honour  ? 

24.  His  conduct  in  his  latter  days? 

25.  Whom  did  he  adopt  as  his  successor,  and 

on  what  condition? 

26.  The    conduct  of   the    senate   after  his 

death  ? 

27.  What  is   said   of  the  administration  of 

Antoninus  ? 

28.  The  eiTect  of  his  reign  on  the  provinces  ? 

29.  What    proves    the     prosperity     of    his 

reign  ? 

30.  What  circumstance  shows  the  venera- 

tion attached  to  his  memory  ? 

31.  His  successor  ? 

32.  The  conduct  of  Verus  ? 

33.  What    interrupted    the    tranquillity    of 

Rome  ? 

34.  How  was   the    plague   introduced   into 

Europe  ? 

35.  What  defeat  did  the  Roman  army  sus- 

tain ? 

36.  How  were  the  losses  repaired  ? 

37.  Aurelius'  plan  for  carrying  on  the  war  ? 

38.  How  did  a  departure  from  it  on  one  oc- 

casioji  nearly  prove  his  ruin  ? 

39.  How  was  he  delivered  ? 

40.  Who  rebelled  against  him  in  the  East  ? 

41.  Who  suffered  martyrdom  in  this  'eign  ? 

42.  What  is  said  of  his   apologies  foi  Chris- 

tianity? 

43.  What  made  Aurelius  more  tolerant  to- 

ward the  close  of  his  reign  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


31 


44.  What  led  to  a  renewal  of  war  along  the 

Rhine  and  Danube? 

45.  When  and  where  did  he  die  ? 

46.  What  expired  with  him? 

47.  What  is  said  of  his  meditations  ? 

48.  What  remark  is  made  of  Commodus? 

49.  Who  had  spoiled  him  ? 

50.  His  character  and  conduct? 

51.  What  made  him  suspicious  of  the  senate  ? 

52.  What  new  danger  arose  ? 

53.  The  design  of  the  conspirators  ? 

54.  Wliut  produced  an  alarming  insurrection 

of  the  Roman  populace  ? 

55.  What  led  to  his  death? 

56.  The  decrees  of  the  senate  .it  his  death  ? 

Sec.  4. — Foreign  Commerce  of  the  Romans 
in  the  Age  of  the  Antonines. 

1  For  what  is  the  age  of  the  Antonines 

celebrated  ? 

2  What  is  said  of  Palmyra  ? 

3.  What  led  great  numbers  of  Syrian  mer- 

chants to  settle  in  Rome  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Byzantium  ? 

5.  The  great  caravan  route  across  Asia  ? 

6.  The  two  caravan  routes  from  Bactra  ? 

7.  What  new  route  did  the  Emperor  Anto- 

ninus attempt  to  open  ? 

8.  What    improvement  hi  navigation    did 

Harpalus  make  ? 

9.  How  was  he  honoured? 

10.  The  route  of  the  Egyptian  trade  under 

the  Romans? 

11.  The  imports  from  India? 
12    The  principal  exports  ? 

13.  The   attention  of  Commodus   to   com- 

merce ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the   trade  of  the  Black 

Sea? 

15.  What  facts  show  that  the  Romans  were 

not  a  commercial  people  ? 

Sec.  5. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  Fla 
viun    Family    to    the    Establishment    of 
Military  Despotism,  after  the  Harder  of 
Alexander  Severus. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  accession  o'  Pertinax 

to  the  crown  ? 

2.  What  reforms  did  he  effect  ? 

3.  The   cause    and   circumstances   of    his 

death  ? 

4.  How  did  Didius  obtain  the  crown  ? 

5.  How  was  he  treated  by  the  Roman  popu- 

lace? 

6.  What    competitors   for   the    crown   ap- 

peared ? 

7.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  the  death  of 

Didius  ? 

8.  First  step  of  Severus  ? 

9.  By  whom  was  he  opposed  ? 

10.  The  fate  of  Byzantium  ? 

11.  What  second  contest  for  empire  did  Se- 

verus ongage  in  ? 


12.  His  conduct  at  Rome  ? 

13.  What  recalled  him  to  Asia  ? 

14.  Who  was  his  premier,  and  what  was  hi» 

character  ? 

15.  The  circumstances  of  his  death? 

16.  Severus'  exploits  in  Britain? 

17.  Wiiat  is  said  of  him  and  his  administra- 

tion ? 

18.  Wicked  conduct  of  Caracalla? 

19.  By    what    means    did    he    support   hia 

authority  ? 

20.  How  did  he  lower  the  pride  of  the  Ro- 

mans ? 

21.  His  treatment  of  Alexandria,  and  th« 

reason  for  it  ? 

22.  His  death? 

23.  By  whom  was  he  succeeced  ? 

24.  How  was  Caracalla  i«garded  by  tne  sol- 

diers? 

25.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Macrmus  ? 

26.  Why  was  Heliogabalus  made  emperor  ? 

27.  His  age  at  his  accession  ? 

28.  His  character  ? 

29.  His  conduct  at  Rome? 

30.  What  is  said  of  the  Roman  ladies  ? 

31.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Heliogabalus  ? 

32.  How  was  his  body  treated  ? 

33.  What  is  said  of  Alexander  Severus,  bis 

successor  ? 

34.  What  important  revolution  took  place  in 

the  east  during  his  reign  ? 

35.  The  standard  of  Artaxerxes? 

36.  What  was  one  great  effect  of  this  revo- 

lution ? 

37.  The  great  aim  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty? 

38.  What   is   said    of  the    public    buildings 

erected  by  this  dynasty  ? 

39.  What  did  Ardeshir  attempt  to  de  ? 

40.  The  success  of  Alexander  Severus  against 

him? 

41.  The  cause  and  circumstances  of  his  death  1 

42.  What  is  said  of  him  ? 

Sec.  6. — From  the  Murder  of  Alexander  ti 
the  Captivity  of  Valerian  and  the  Usur- 
pation of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

1.  Who  succeeded  Alexander  Severus  ? 

2.  Instances  of  his  great  strength  ? 

3.  His  success  against  the  Germans  ? 

4.  How  did  he  provoke  a  civil  war  ? 

5.  Who  was  proclaimed  emperor  ? 

6.  Conduct  of  the  senate  thereupon  ? 

7.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Maximiu  ? 

8.  His  successor,  and  his  age  ? 

9.  What  led  him  to  Syria? 

10.  Conduct  and  character  of  Misitheus  ? 

11.  Circumstances  of  Gordians  death? 

12.  His  successor,  and  his  administration 

13.  What  rendered  his  reign  remarkable? 

14.  Circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

15  How  did  Deciui-  commence  his  reign  ? 

16  What  Christian  bishop  suti'ered  martyr- 

dom ? 


32 


QUESTIONS    ON 


17.  Who  was  Paul  the  hermit? 

18.  Death  of  the  emperor  ? 

19.  His  successor  ? 

20.  How  did  he   provoke  universal  resent- 

ment? 

21.  His  death,  and  successor  1 

22.  What  is  said  of  Valerian? 

23.  What  enemies  were   now  attacking  the 

empire  ? 

24.  What  is  said  of  the  scale  armour  of  the 

Sarmatians? 

25.  The  fate  of  Valerian  ? 

26.  How  v>'as   he   treated  by  Sapor,  and  by 

his  own  son  ? 


Sec, 

1. 
2. 

3. 

4. 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 
12. 

13. 

14 
15. 

16. 
17. 

18. 

19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 
27. 

28 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 


7. — From  the  Captivity  of  Valerian  to 
the  Resignation  of  Dioclesian. 

What  is  said  of  Gallieuus  ? 

How  many  competitors  for  the  throne 
appeared  ? 

Who  was  Odenatus  ? 

Who  was  Zenobia,  and  what  is  said  of 
her? 

Who  succeeded  Gallienus? 

What  is  said  of  Aurelian? 

How  did   he  secure   the  tranquillity  of 
Europe  ? 

How  did  Zenobia  precipitate  her  ruin  ? 

The  fate  of  Pahnyra? 

What  otlier  provinces  did  Aurelian  re 
cover  to  the  empire  ? 

How  did  he  treat  Zenobia  ? 

By  what  circumstance  was  an  insurrec- 
tion caused  at  Rome  ? 

The  loss  of  the  imperial  troops  in  attempt- 
ing to  quell  the  riot  ? 

What  led  Aurelian  to  quit  Rome  ? 

How  were  his  virtues  sullied  ? 

What  led  to  his  death  ? 

How  did  the  soldiers  avenge  his  death? 

Who  was  elected  emperor  by  the  Syrian 
army? 

His  victories  ? 

The  cause  of  his  death  ? 

His  successor,  and  his  deeds  ? 

Who  was  Dioclesian  ? 

Why  does  the  date  of  his   accession  de- 
serve to  be  remembered  ? 

By  whom   is   the  "  era  of  Dioclesian " 
still  observed  ? 

Whom  did  Dioclesian  choose  as  his  col- 
league ? 

What  is  said  of  Maximian  ? 

What  further  division  of  authority  was 
made  ? 

How  was  the  empire  divided  ? 

The  elTect  of  this  division? 

Success  of  Constantius  in  Britain  ? 

Disaster  of  Galerius  ? 

His  subsequent  success  ? 

What  prize  did  he  take  ? 

Folly  of  a  soldier  ? 
Generosity  of  Galerius  ? 


Sec. 
to 

1. 
2. 


4. 
5. 
6. 


36.  What  great  province  was  gained  tv)  &* 

Romans  by  this  battle  ? 

37.  How  were  these  triumphs  sullied? 

38.  What  is  said  of  the  numbers  of  martyrs' 

39.  Of  the  triumphs  of  Christianity  ? 

40.  What  strange  revolt  happened  in  Syrial 

41.  Dioclesian's  base  conduct  to  the  people 

of  Antioch,  and  its  effect  on  them  ? 

42.  What  is  said  of  his  triumph  at  Rome  ? 

43.  Why  did  ho  quit  the  city  ? 

44.  His  resignation,  how  occasioned? 

45.  How  Ic  tg  did  he  survive  it  ? 

46.  His  letter  to  Maximian  ? 

47.  What  embittered  his  last  days? 

.  8. — Fro7n  the  Abdication  of  Dioclesian 
the  Death  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

How  was  the  empire  again  divided  ? 

To  what  dangers  was  Constantine  ex- 
posed ? 

Under  what  circumstances  was  he  pro- 
claimed emperor  ? 

Conduct  of  Maxentius  ? 

How  did  Constantine  show  his  prudence? 

Between  what  six  sovereigns  was  the 
empire  now  shared  ? 

7.  Treachery  of   Maximian,  and  how  waa 
it  punished? 

8.  What  occasioned  the  death  of  Galerius? 

9.  How  did  Maxentius  provoke  a  war,  and 
with  whom? 

10.  Where  and  how  was  ho  destroyed? 

11.  What  vision  did  Constantine  see? 

12.  The  testimony  for  and  against  this  ac- 
count? 

13.  What    great    reforms    did    Constantine 
effect  in  Rome? 

14.  Conduct  of  Maximin,  and  his  death? 

15.  Cruelty  of  Licinius  ? 

16.  What  civil  war  now  ensued? 

17.  The  result  of  it? 

18.  What  renewed  the  war  ? 

19.  What  is  said  of  t"-'  battle  of  the  He- 
brus? 

20.  The  result  of  the  war  ? 

21.  Wliat  celebrated  council  was  now  con- 
voked ? 

22.  What  doctrines  were  establislied  by  it  ? 

23.  How  was  Constantine  received  at  Rome? 

24.  What  effect  did  this  have  on  him  ? 
25    What  horrid  crime  did  ho  commit? 

26.  How  did  he  avenge  himself  on  the  em- 
press ? 

27.  What  led  him  to  make  Byzantium  ihe 
capital  of  the  empire  ? 

28.  Describe  the  position  of  this  city  ? 

29.  Its  advantages  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  Constantino's  adminis- 
tration ? 

31.  The  effect  of  the  removal  of  the  seat  ol 
government  ? 

32    Into  what  three  classes  were  the  magis- 
trates divided  ? 


ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


as 


33.  Who  were  the  magistrates  of  the  first 

class  ? 

34.  How  were  the  Roman  divisions  divided  ? 

35.  The  power  and  duties  of  the  proetoriau 

prefects? 

36.  Tiie  great  officers  of  the  state  and  court  ? 

37.  Their  several  duties  ? 

38.  The  salaries  of  the  duces  and  comites  ? 

39.  What  proofs  of  the  decay  of  military 

spirit   among  the    Romans   are   men- 
tioned ? 

40.  The  eflect  of  the  changes  in  the  consti- 

tution of  the  civil  and  military  admin- 
istration of  the  government  ? 
•il    What  advantage  of  arbitrary  government 
is  mentioned  ? 

42.  The  meaning  of  the  term  indiction  1 

43.  What  was  the  aurum  litstrale  ? 

44.  What  the  aurum  coronale  ? 

45.  "What  is  said  of  Constantino's  innova- 

tions ? 

46.  The  established  religion  under  Constan- 

tine  ? 

47.  How  did  he  support  the  church  ? 

Sec.  9. — From  the  Death  of  Constantine  to 
the  Reunion  of  the  Empire  under  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great. 

1.  Constantino's  successors  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  them,  and  of  their  edu- 

cation ? 

3.  Of  what  horrid  conduct  was  Constantius 

guilty  ? 

4.  What  new  division  of  the   empire  was 

made  ? 

5.  The  early  history  of  Shah-pur,  the  Per- 

sian monarch  ? 

6.  How    many  indecisive   but  sanguinary 

engagements  did  he  fight  with  the  Ro- 
mans ? 

7  Where  did  he  overthrow  themi 

8  What  led  to  a  peace  ? 

9.  What  led  to  a  civil  war,  and  its  result  ? 

10.  Administration  of  Constans  ? 

]  1.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

12.  How  was  Vetranio  forced  to  assume  the 

purple  1 

13.  The  conduct  of  Constantina? 

14.  Movements  of  Constantius  ? 
15    The  fate  of  Vetranio  ? 

16.  Describe  the  battle  of  Mursa  ? 

17.  What  has  been  said  of  this  battle  ? 

18.  The  fate  of  Magnentius  ? 

19.  The  causes  and  manner  of  the  death  of 

Callus  ? 

20.  What  saved  Julian,  his  brother  ? 

21.  What  city  did  Constantius  now  visit,  and 

what  was  his  reception  ? 

22.  What  dangerous  enemy  again  attacked 

the  empire? 
3c    The  conduct  of . Julian  in  Gaul? 
24.  How  was  a  civil  war  between  him  and 

Constantius  averted  ? 


25. 

26. 
27. 

28. 

29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 

34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 

38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 

42. 
43. 
44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 

57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 

61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 

68. 

69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 


What  heresy  distracted  the  church   io 

this  reign  ? 

Which  party  did  Constantius  favour  f 

What  celebrated  bishop  opposed  it  ? 

How  was  Juhau  received  in  Constant!* 
nople  ? 

His  first  measure  ? 

What  is  said  "^f  his  reforms  of  the  court  ? 

The  great  object  of  his  ambition  ? 

How  did  he  attempt  to  accomplish  it  ? 

What  attempt  did  he  make  to  disprove 
the  inspiration  of  the  scriptures  ? 

How  was  he  forced  to  abandon  it  ? 

In  what  war  did  he  engage  ? 

The  circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

What  dishonourable  peace  did  Joviaii 
conclude  ? 

His  treatment  of  Christians  and  Pagans 

The  manner  of  his  death  ? 

Who  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  ? 

What  division  of  the  empire  did  he 
make  ? 

The  capital  of  the  western  empire  ? 

What  war  did  Valentinian  engage  in  ? 

What  circumstance  filled  him  with 
alarm  ? 

His  first  care  after  his  recovery  from 
sickness  ? 

Whose  piracies  began  now  to  attract  at- 
tention ? 

Who  preserved  Britain  to  the  empire  7 

How  was  he  rewarded  ? 

Conduct  of  Count  Romanus  ? 

How  did  he  escape  punishment  ? 

To  what  did  his  conduct  lead  ? 

By  whom  was  the  rebellion  suppressed  T 

Cause  of  Valentinian's  death  ? 

His  character  and  administration  ? 

What  was  Valens  doing  in  the  east  ? 

What  war  did  he  engage  in,  and  with 
what  success  ? 

His  conduct  to  the  opposers  of  Arianism  1 

By  whom  was  Valentinian  succeeded? 

Of  what  great  crime  was  Gratian  guilty? 

What  laws  did  he  make  favourable  to 
the  interests  of  the  church  ? 

Who  were  the  Huns  ? 

What  is  said  of  their  personal  appearance? 

Their  food,  and  how  was  it  dressed? 

Their  manners  and  peculiarities  ? 

To  what  did  they  force  the  Goths  ? 

How  did  they  treat  their  prisoners  ? 

How  did  the  Gothic  monarch  fortify  him- 
self? 

What  did  the  Gothic  nation  do  in  theii 
extremity  ? 

The  deeds  of  Ulphilas  their  bishop  ? 

Base  conduct  of  the  officers  of  Valens  T 

Treachery  of  Lupicinus  ? 

How  did  the  Goths  take  revenge  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  battle  fought  betweea 


the    Goths    and 
Adrianople  ? 


the    Romans    oecK 


84 


QUESTIONS   ON 


74.  Whom  did   Gratian  now   thoose  as  his 

associate  ? 

75.  Coiidiicft  of  Theodosius  and  its  effects? 

76.  The  fate  of  Gratiaa  ? 

77.  Boldness    of    tSt.    Ambrose,    bishop    of 

Milan  ? 

78.  By  whom  was  the  usurper  defeated  ? 

79.  ^^'hat  hastened  his  death  ? 

80.  The  fate  of  Valentiniau  II.  ? 

bl.  Under  whom  was   the   Roman   empire 
once  more  united? 

Sec.  10. —  The  Overthrow  of  the   Western 
Empire. 

1.  To   whom   did   Theodosius    assign    the 
eastern,    and   to   whom   the    western 


2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


empire  i 


his 


and 


Who  was  Rufinus,  and  his  character  ? 
How  did  he  aim  to  secure  his  power  ? 
Whom  did  Arcadius  marry  ? 
Of  what   pretext  die  Stilicho  avail  him- 
self to  put  down  Rufinus  ? 
What  ted  him  to  return  to  Italy  1 
The  fate  of  Rufinus  ? 
How  was  Stilicho  treated  by  the  court 

of  Constantinople  ? 
How  was  the  African  revolt  suppressed  ? 
The  fate  of  Gildo  and  Mascezel  ? 
Who  now  invaded  the  empire? 
Of  what  consummate  folly  was  Arcadius 

guilty  ? 
Whither  did  Alaric  then  go  ? 
How  was  he  induced  to  quit  Italy  ? 
What     city   did    Honorius    make 

capital  ? 
Who  next  invaded  Italy? 
Who     was     proclaimed    omporor, 

why? 
18.  Of  what  crime  and  folly  was  Honorius 

guilty? 
What  impolitic  and  monstrous  edict  did 

Olympus,  his  minister,  issue  ? 
The  consequences  of  it  ? 
How  was  Alaric  induced  to  quit  Rome? 

22.  How  did  Honorius  again  show  his  folly? 

23.  When  was  Rome  captured  ? 

24.  How  many  days  was  it  pillaged  ? 

25.  Death  and  burial  of  Alaric? 
What  tribes   now  established  themselves 

in  Spain  and  Gaul? 
What  became  of  the  Britons  ? 
Origin  of  the  term  "  England  ?  " 
How  was  the  reign  of  Arcadius,   in  the 

east,  dishonoured? 
30.  What  illustrious  bishop  of  Constantinople 

fell    a   victim   to    the    cruelty    of    the 

empress  ? 
By  whom  was  Arcadius  succeeded  ? 
Who  usurped  the  administration  ? 
How  did  she  govern  ? 
What  other  woman  became  ruler  of 

western  empire  ? 
How  did  she  treat  Count  Boniface  ? 


6. 

7. 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 
14. 
15. 

16. 
17. 


19 

20 
21. 


26. 

27. 
28. 
29. 


3L 
32. 
33. 
34 


36. 

37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 

47. 

48. 
49. 
50. 

51. 

52. 
53. 
54. 

55. 


the 


35 


10. 
11. 

12. 
13. 

14. 
15. 

16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20. 


By  what  means  was  Genseiic   induce* 

to  invade  Africa  ? 
The  fate  of  Count  Boniface  ? 
How  was  the  double  treachery  ol  ^'Etiiis 

punished? 
Who  was  Attila  ? 
How  was  he  induced  to  refrain  from  at 

tacking  the  Byzantine  empire  ? 
What  led  him  to  turn  his  arms  agains' 

the  Western  empire  ? 
Baseness  of  Honoria  ? 
By  whom  was  Attila  at  first  defeated? 
What  delayed  the  ruin  of  the  ernpu-e  ? 
The  fate  of  ^Etius  ? 
The  fate  of  Valentinian,  and  who  sue 

ceeded  him  ? 
How,    and    why   was    Maximus  put  to 

death  ? 
By  whom  was  Rome  again  pillaged  ? 
How  were  the  inhabitants  treated  ? 
Who  redeemed  many  of  them,  and  by 

what  means  ? 
What  succession  of  emperors  now  sat  on 

the  throne  of  the  Western  empire  ? 
Who  was  Count  Ricimer  ? 
Who  was  the  last  Roman  emperor  ? 
When  was  Italy  conquered  by  the  Ostro* 

goths  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Gnostics 


CHAPTER  XVIIl 

INDIA. 

What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  of  India, 

when  Alexander  first  invaded  it  ? 
What  inference  is  drawn  from  this  fact  1 
How  far  back  does  the  civilization  of 

India  probably  reach  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  castes  of  India  ? 
Remark  of  Major  Bevan  ? 
The  cradle  of  the  Hindoo  race? 
Testimony  of  the  ancient  records  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Brahmins  ? 
The   story  of  the   drama  of  the  "  Toy 

Cart." 
The  two  great  dynasties  m  India  proper  ? 
What  is  said  of  the   war  between  the 

Pandoos  and  Kooroos  ? 
The  result  of  it  ? 
Who  occupied  the  throne  of  India  aftez 

Alexander's  retreat  ? 
What  is  said  of  Mahapadma-Nanda  ? 
How  di-i  he  provoke  the  hostility  of  the 

Brahmins  1 
Who  was  Ch.andra-Gupta  ? 
To  whom  did  he  owe  his  elevation  to 

the  throne  ? 
By  whom  was  he  attacked  ? 
What  treaty  did  he  make  with  Seleucu* 

Nicator? 
Who  is  the  next  sovereign  of  India  of 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


85 


whom  we  know  any  thing,  and  what 
is  said  of  him? 

21.  By  whom  was  he  conquered  ? 

22.  What  do  the  Hindoo  accounts  say  of 

him  ? 

23.  What    is   said   of   India   from   this   pe- 

riod ? 

24.  How  did  tlio  priesthood  obtain  a  mono- 

poly of  knowledge? 

25.  What  were  some  of  the  prerogatives  of 

the  Brahmins? 

26.  What  is  said  of  the  warrior  caste  ? 

27.  The  consequence  of  this  ? 

28.  The  Vaisya  caste,  what  ? 

29.  The  Sudras,  what  ? 
30    Who  was  Buddha? 

SI    Repeat  the  Buddhiet  hymz 


32.  When  were  the  Buddhists  expelled  from 

India  ? 

33.  The  effect  of  this  persecution  ? 

34.  Where  did  they  find  refuge  ? 

35.  How  many  persons  profess  Buddhism  ? 

36.  To  what  is  its  success  owing  ? 

37.  Wlio  were  the  Jains  ? 

38.  What  is  said  of  the  India  trade  ? 

39.  How   did   the    Persians    procure    theil 

goods  from  India  ? 

40.  What  discovery  brought  India  nearer  to 

the  rest  of  the  world  ? 

41.  The  effect  of  this  discovery  ? 

42.  What  is  said  of  Ceylon  ? 

43.  What  circumstance  shows  that  the  civi 

Ihation  of  India  belongs  io  aa  asfe  «f 
T«ry  remote  antiquity  ? 


h,  A'ppleion  ty  Co.'s   Valuable  Ful>Ucali(yns. 

DR.    ARNOLD'S    WORKS. 

7 

THE  HISTORY  OF  ROME, 
from  the  Earliest  Period.     Reprinted  entire  from   the  last  English  edUioR 

Oue  vul.,  8vo.     $3  00. 

HISTORY   OF   THE   LATER    ROMAN   COMMON- 
WEALTH. 

Two  vola.  of  the  English  edition  reprinted  entire  in  1  vol.,  8vo.  $2  50. 
"  The  History  of  Rome  will  remain,  to  the  latest  i.^e  of  )ie  world,  the  most  atlract:Te,  tits 
mojt  useful,  aud  the  most  elevatiiig  subject  of  human  coHlem|ihitiori.  It  must  ever  form  Ibj 
basis  of  a  libera!  and  enli^hteced  education,  and  present  tin-  iiost  important  subject  to  the  con- 
templation of  the  statesman.  It  is  remarkable,  that  until  the  .'tppearance  of  Dx  Arnold's  vol- 
nmes,  no  history,  (except  Niebuhr's,  whose  style  is  often  obsc'iro)  of  this  wonderful  people  ex- 
isted, Commensurate  either  to  their  dignity,  their  importance,  or  their  intimate  connection 
with  modern  institutions.  In  the  preparation  and  composition  of  tne  history,  Dr.  Arnold  ea- 
pended  many  long  years,  and  bent  to  it  the  whole  force  of  his  grcal  energies.  It  is  a  work  to 
which  the  whole  culture  of  the  man,  from  boyhood,  contributed — most  carefully  and  deepi} 
meditated,  pursued  with  all  the  ardor  of  a  labor  of  love,  and  reliufiuished  only  with  life.  O! 
the  Conscientious  accuracy,  industry,  and  power  of  mind,  which  the  work  evinces — its  clesirness, 
dignity,  and  vigor  of  composition — it  would  be  needless  to  speak.  It  is  eminently  calculated  to 
delight  and  instruct  both  the  student  and  the  miscellaneous  reader."—  Huston  Courier. 

III. 

LECTURES  ON  MODERN  HISTORY. 

De.'ivered  in  Lent  Terrn,  1842,  with  the  Inatigiiral  Lecture  delivered  in  1841. 
Edited,  with  a  Preface  and  Notes,  by  Henry  Reed,  M.  A.,  Prof,  of  English 
Literature  in  the  University  of  Pa.     12ino.     ^1  2.5. 

"  The  Lectures  are  eight  in  numker,  and  fmuish  tlie  best  pi  ssible  introduction  to  a  philosophi- 
cal study  of  modern  history.  Prof.  Reed  has  added*ioatly  to  the  worth  and  interest  of  the  vol- 
ume, by  appending  to  each  lecture  such  extracts  from  Dr  Arnold's  other  writings  as  would 
more  fully  illustrate  its  prominent  points.  Tlie  notes  and  appendi.x  which  he  has  thus  furnished 
are  exceedingly  valuable."— CnuWer  and  Enquirer. 

RUGBY  SCHOOL  SERMONS. 

Sermons  preached  in  the   Chapel  of  Rugby  School,  with   an   Address  befora 
Confirmation.     One  volume,  IGmo.     50  cts. 

"There  are  thirty  Sermons  in  this  neat  little  volume,  which  we  cordially  recommend  to  pa- 
rents and  others,  fur  the  use  of  the  young,  as  a  guide  and  incentive  to  deep  earnestness  in  mat- 
tori  of  religious  belief  and  conduct ;  as  a  book  which  will  interest  all  by  its  sincerity,  and  e«p»- 
oially  those  who  have  become  acquainted  with  Dr.  A.  through  his  Life  and  Ijetters,  recend| 
published  by  the  Appletons." — Evening  Post. 

V. 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS. 

With  nine  additional   Essays,  not  included   in   the   English  collection.     One 

volume,  Bvo.  .$2  00. 
"This  volume  includes  disquisitions  on  the  '  Church  and  State,'  in  its  existing  British  combi- 
oatioas — on  Scripriral  and  Secular  History — and  on  Education,  with  various  other  subjects  \A 
Political  Economy.  It  will  be  a  suitable  counterpart  to  the  '  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Dr, 
Arnold,'  and  scholars  who  have  been  so  deeply  iiiteresred  in  thai  impressive  biography  will  b* 
giatified  to  ascertain  the  deliberate  judgment  of  the  Author,  upon  the  numerous  im;ortaDt 
themes  which  his  '  Miscellaneous  Works  '  so  richly  and  clearly  announce." 

VI. 

THE    LIFE    AND    CORRESPONDENCE    OF    THOMAS 

ARNOLD,  D.  D. 

By  Arthur   P.  Stanley.  A.  M.     2d  American  I'lom  the  fifth  London  edition. 
One  haniLsome  8vo.  volume.     ^2  00. 
'  This  work  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  one  who  lives  and  thinks  foi  his  race  and  f«! 
fcfa  religion  ;  not  so  much  as  a  guide  for  action,  as  atTording  a  stimulant  to  iBtelI«otlia]  tiaj 
«nral  reflection.'  —Prot.  i'^urehman. 


WORKS    BY    M .    M  I  C  H  E  L  E  T  . 

Published  b%  D.  Apphton  Sf  Co.,  200  Broadfoaw 


HISTORY    OF    FRANCE, 

FliOM  THE  EARLIEST  PERIOD 

TRANSLATED  BY  G.  H.  SMITH,  F.  G.  S 

Two  handsome  8vo,  volumes.  $  3  50. 

"  So  graphic,  BO  life-like,  90  dramatic  a  historian  as  Michelot,  we  know  not  when 
»lse  to  looli  for.  The  countries,  the  races  of  men,  the  times,  pass  vividly  before  yon 
ts  you  peruse  his  animated  pages,  where  we  find  notliing  of  diffuseness  or  irrelevnn 
By.  It  is  a  masterly  work,  and  the  publishers  are  doing  the  reading  public  a  eervic 
by  producing  it  in  bo  unexceptionable  and  cheap  an  edition." — TYibune. 

HISTORY 

OF  THE 

ROMAN      REPUBLIC. 

One  handsome  12mo.  volume.  Paper  cover  75  cts.  Cloth  ^1. 

'  M.  Michelet,  in  his  History  of  the  Roman  Republic,  first  introduces  the  rcadei 
to  the  Ancient  Geography  of  Italy  ;  then  by  giving  an  excellent  picture  of  the  preseni 
■tftte  of  Rome  and  the  surrounding  country,  full  of  grand  ruins,  he  excites  in  the 
reader  the  desire  to  investigate  the  ancient  history  of  this  wonderful  land.  He  nest 
imparts  the  results  of  tka  latest  investigations,  entire,  deeply  studied  and  clearl/ 
arranged,  and  saves  the  u  i-^ducaled  reader  the  trouble  of  investigating  the  sources, 
while  he  gives  to  the  more  educated  mind  an  impetus  to  study  the  literature  from 
which  he  gives  very  accurate  quotations  in  his  notes.  He  describes  the  peculiaritief 
and  the  life  of  tha  Roman  people  in  a  masterly  manner,  and  he  fascinates  every 
reader,  by  the  brilliant  clearness  and  vivid  freshness  of  his  style,  while  ho  showt 
himself  a  good  historian,  by  the  justness  and  impartiality  with  which  he  relates  atvi 
philosophizes." 

THE    LIFE 

OP 

MARTIN    LUTHER, 

GATHERED  FROM  HIS  OWN  WRITINGS 

By  M.  Michelet:  translated  by  G.  H.  Smith,  F.  G.  S. 

One  handsome  volume,  12mo.    Cloth  75  cts..  Paper  cover  50  cts. 

■fhis  work  is  not  an  historical  romance,  founded  on  the  life  of  Martin  Luther 
»..*.  is  it  a  history  of  the  establishment  of  Lutheraniom.  It  is  simply  a  biography, 
VsMposed  of  a  series  of  translations.  Excepting  that  portion  of  it  which  has  refer- 
.5n««  to  his  childhood,  and  whiih  Luther  himself  has  left  undcscribed,  the  translatof 
itas  rarely  found  oicasion  to  make  his  own  appearance  on  the  scene.  ♦  *  •  *  « 
it  is  almost  invariably  Luther  himself  who  speaks,  almost  invariably  Luther  related 
kj  Luther, — Extract  from  M.  MicheUfs  Preface. 

THE  PEOPLE. 

TRANSLATED  BY  G.  H.  SMITH,  P.  G.  S. 

Ons  neat  voiume,  r2rno.     Cloth  G2  cts.,  Paper  cover  38  cts. 

"  Tliij  botti  is  more  than  a  book  ;  it  is  myself,  therefore  it  belongs  to  you  *  ♦ 
B«e«ive  thou  t.iis  book  of  "  The  People,"  because  it  is  you — because  it  is  I.  ♦  * 
have  made  this  book  out  of  myself,  out  of  my  life,  and  out  of  my  ho. in.  I  hair* 
leri»ed  it  from  my  observation,  from  my  relations  of  friendship  and  of  neighborhood, 
lave  picked  it  cp  upon  the  to.iils  Chance  loves  to  favor  those  who  follow  out  oa* 
eoctiruous  idea.  Ahove  all,  I  have  found  it  in  the  recollections  of  my  youth.  T« 
Isnow  the  life  of  the  people,  thejr  labor  and  their  sulforingi",  I  bad  but  to  intsrrogat* 
MT  Qietndrjr. — Extract  fron  jiulhor's  Preface,. 


GUIZOT'S  HISTOEICAL  WORKS. 


D.  Appleton  cf  Co.,  publish,  complete  in  four  volumes. 

THE  HISTORY   OF    CIVILIZATION, 

FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  TO  TUP 

FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

BY  F.  GUIZOT, 

Prime  Minister  of  France,  etc.     Translated  by  William  Hazlilt.     Price,  neally  l>on«<i  Ir 

cloth,  $:i  50  ;  or  [laper  cover,  .f :!  00. 

"This work  is  divided  into  two  Purls.  The  Firs*,  conlains  a  General 
History,  or  rather  a  profound  Philosoi)l)icai  Analysis,  of  the  leading  ev«nt* 
of  the  History  of  the  Nations  of  Europe  from  the  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  to  1789,  and  of  the  principles  ^lat  governed  the  historical  pro- 
gresfl  of  Europe  during  that  period.  The  Second  contains  the  History 
of  Civilization  in  France  in  particular,  with  a  general  glance  at  the  res! 
of  Europe.  The  study  of  the  social  and  political  progress  of  what  i* 
called  Modern  Civilization  is  entered  into  more  minutely  in  the  Second 
Fart,  and  hence  it  became  necessary  to  select  one  Nation  as  a  type  and 
to  study  it  particularly.  M.  Guizot  very  properly  made  choice  of  France, 
which,  intellectually,  has  been,  as  nhe  still  is,  the  Leader  of  Europe  in 
social  and  political  progress. 

We  cannot  speak  in  too  high  terms  of  this  admirable  work.  As  a 
perspicuous  analysis  of  those  important  political  and  religious  movementa 
of  Europe,  which  have  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  great  civilized 
Nations  that  now  exist  upon  the  earth,  and  as  a  clear  and  comprehensive 
summary  of  the  events  of  the  great  historical  epochs  that  succeeded  each 
other,  we  think  that  this  v/ork  has  no  rival.  Others  have  written  more 
in  detail,  and  introduced  us,  as  Thierry  has  done,  more  intimately  inte 
the  daily  life  and  the  manners  of  the  People  ;  but  for  a  study  of  the  inin- 
ciples  that  have  lain  at  the  foundation  of  the  historical  life  and  the  work- 
ings of  Nations,  and  of  the  philosophy  of  the  historical  movements  which 
have  marked  the  progress  of  European  History,  we  think  that  M.  Guizot 
has  not  been  equalled.  His  insight  into,  and  his  dissection  of  the  causes 
that  led  to  the  establishment  of  political  institutions,  and  his  analysis  ol 
the  signification  of  great  political  and  religious  events,  are  clear  and  pro- 
found, and  must  assist  the  student  incalculably  in  obtaining  a  knowledge 
of  the  history  ol  which  he  treats.  The  rise  and  constitution  of  the 
F'uda!  System,  of  the  Church,  the  Afi'ianchisement  of  the  Cities,  the 
commencement  of  Int-Uectual  progress  in  Europe,  the  signification  of  the 
Reformation,  are  among  the  topics  luminously  explained  by  the  powerful 
talent  of  M.  Guizot. 

France  has  produced,  within  late  years,  some  remarkable  historians 
and  Ajipleton  &  Co.  are  rendering  an  important  service  to  the  public  in 
republishing  their  works.  The  study  of  History  will  be  rendered  more 
attractive,  and  a  clear  view  of  principles  rather  than  a  mere  external 
description  of  events  will  thus  be  conveyed.  We  can  recommend  tlm 
work  to  every  reader  of  History  as  one  Vr-hich  appears  'o  us  indispeneable."- 
Trihune. 

By  the  same  Author.^ 

HISTORY    OF    THE    ENGLISH 
REVOLUTION    OF    16  4  0, 

From  the  Accession  of  Charles  1.  to  his  Death      Translated  by  William  HaEhtt. 
2  vols.  I'imo.     Paper  cover   $1  0"     or  two  vols,  ii  one,  cloth,  $1  25. 
"  It  is  a  work  of  great  eloquence  and  interest   and  abounding  with  thrilling  dramMM 
ticetchea." — JWioari  Jidvrrtisrr. 

"  M.  Gaiiot't  style  is  bold  and  tjqnant,  the  notes  and  references  abundant  smd  raliaUa 
ttrf  tk«  work  ii  woithv  of  an  h(>norv\hle  place  in  a  weU-seJect^  library    ' — A'  HnveHCof 


LORD    MAHON'S    HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

7).  Appleton  df  Company  have  just  pulhshed^ 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND, 

FROM 

THE  PEACE  OF  UTRECHT  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  PARIft 
BY   LORD  MAHON 

EDITED   BT 

HENRY     REED,     LL.D., 
Prof  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Penr.syltan%M 

Two  handsome  8vo.  volumes.    Price  $5. 

Mr.  J\Iacaulay's  Opinion. 

"  Lord  Mahon  has  undoubtedly  some  of  the  most  valuable  qualities  of  a  bittoriw^ 
Reat  diligence  in  examinins  authorities,  great  judgment  in  weighing  testimony,  and  frcsi 
UBpartiality  in  estimating  characters." 

Quarterly  Review. 

"  Lord  Mahon  has  shown  throughout,  excellent  skill  in  combining,  as  woF.  as  con- 
trasting, the  various  elements  of  interest  which  his  materials  afforded  ;  he  hai.  continaed 
to  draw  his  historical  portraits  with  the  same  firm  and  easy  hand  ;  and  no  one  can  lay 
down  the  book  without  feeling  that  he  has  been  under  the  guidance  of  a  singularly  clear, 
high-principled,  and  humane  mind  ;  one  uniting  a  very  searching  shrewdness  with  ■ 
pare  and  unaffected  charity.  He  has  shown  equal  courage,  judgment,  and  taste,  i« 
availing  himself  of  minute  details,  so  as  to  give  his    narrative  the  jucta  esqueness  of  a 

nemoir,  without  sacrificing  one  jot  of  the  real  dignity  of  history His  History  /. 

well  calculated  to  temper  the  political  judgment.    It  is  one  groat  lesson  of  modesty,  fka 
Lasarance,  and  charity." 

Edinburffh  Review. 

"  It  was  with  no  small  satisfaction  that  we  saw  a  historj;  of  this  period  announced 
from  the  pen  of  Lord  Mahon,  nor  have  we  been  disappointed  in  our  expectations.  Hit 
Bsrrative  is  minute  and  circumstantial,  without  being  tedious.  His  History  of  the  Ro 
bellion  in  particular  is  clear,  distinct,  and  entertaining.  In  his  judgment  of  persons  heir 
DO  the  whole  fair,  candid,  aud  discriminating." 

English  Review. 

"  Lord  Mahon's  worn  will  supply  a  desideratum  which  has  long  been  ''  -&  reaHy 
good  history  of  the  last  150  years.  It  is  written  with  an  ease  of  style,  a  co:<  tuand  of  th« 
wbject,  and  a  comprehensiveness  of  view,  which  evince  the  possession  of  nigh  qualifio«- 
tions  for  the  great  task  which  the  noble  author  has  proposed  to  himsc-lf.  Lord  Mahoa 
avails  himself  extensively  of  the  correspondence  and  private  diaries  of  'lie  times,  whiob 

gives   unnsial  interest  and   life  to  the  narrative The  authorities  quoted  f4M 

Bpanish  or  French  details  are  always  the  original  ;  and  we  can  hardly  remember  a  refer- 
ence of  hii  Lordship's  on  any  subject  which  is  not  to  the  best  testimony  known  Oi 
cecesftible." 

Sismondi — Histoire  dcs  Franeais. 

"  Snr  le  Prince  Charles  Edouard,  en  174.5— nous  renvnyons  nniqneraent  k  Tadmbabli 
fteit  de  celte  expedition  dans  I'Histoire  de  Lord  Mahon.  Toutes  les  relationa  y  Ma 
•anpoMei  otjugies  avec  unesaine  critique,  et  le  recit  presente  le  vif  inter^td'an  roma».' 

Professor  Smyth — University  of  Cambridge. 
"I  mar  recommend  to  others,  what  I  have  just  had  so  much  pleasure  in  reedias  my 
Mif,  the  Hiitory  lately  published  by  Lord  Mahon.     All  that  need  now  be  koowa  •<"  tw 
m  fioBitba  Peace  ol' Utrecht  to  that  of  Aix-la-Cha-,>eIle,  wi.l  he  therr  foaai.' 


J).  APPLE  TON  ^  CO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 


Important  Philosophical   Works. 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  SIR  WILLIAM  HAMILTON,  BART., 

Professor  of  Logic  and  Metaphysics  in  Edinburgh  University.  Arranged 
and  edited  by  0.  W.  WIGHT,  Translator  of  Cousin's  "History  of 
Modern  Philosophy."     One  vol.  8vo.,  pp.  530,  well  printed.     $1  50. 

"Sir  William  Hamilton  has  attained  to  the  very  highest  distinction  as  a  philosopher, 
ma  in  some  respects  ho  is  decidedly  superior  to  any  of  his  illustrious  predecessors — 
Keid,  Stuart,  or  Brown.  With  a  remarkable  power  of  analysis  and  discrimination,  he 
he  combines  great  decision  and  elegance  of  style,  and  a  degree  of  enidition  that  ia 
almost  without  a  parallel." — Edinburgh  Jieview, 


II. 

COURSE  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  MODERN  PHILOSOPHY. 

By  M.  VICTOR  COUSIN.     Translated  by  0.  W.  Wight.     Two  volumes 
8vo.,  well  printed.     Price  |3. 


III. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  BEAUTIFUL. 

From  the  French  of  VICTOR  COUSIN.     Translated,  with  notes,  by  J. 
C.  Daniel.     One  neat  vol.  12mo.     Price  63  cents. 


IV. 

LECTURES  ON  THE  TRUE,  THE  BEAUTIFUL,  AND 

THE  GOOD. 
By  VICTOR  COUSIN.  Ti-anslated  by  0.  W.  Wight.  One  neat  vol.  8vo. 

"  M.  Cousin  is  tho  greatest  philosopher  of  France."— (S^'r  William  Hamilton. 

"  A  writer,  whose  pointed  periods  have  touched  the  chords  of  modern  society,  and 
thrilled  through  the  minds  of  tho^usands  in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  civilized  world." 
— Edinburgh  Review. 


V. 

THE  POSITIVE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  AUGUSTE  COMTE. 

Freely  Translated  and  Condensed  by  HARRIET  MARTINEAU.     Two 
volumes  Svo.  pp.  516,  577,  well  printed.     Price  $4. 


Bariielts    American  Exploring  Expedition. 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

Have  the  pleasure  •    announce  that  they  have  just  published  the  foUowinfr  Important 

National  Work : 

PERSONAL    NARRATIVE 

OF  EXPLORATIONS  AND  INCIDENTS 

IN   TEXAS,  NEW   MEXICO,   CALIFORNIA,   SONOKA   AND   CHIHUAHUA 

In  tue  Years  1S50,  '51,  '52  &  '53. 

CONNECTED   WITH   THE  MEXICAN   BOUNDARY   COMMISSION. 

By  JOHN  RUSSELL  BAllTLETT, 
United    States   CDtninissioner   during  that   period. 

With  very  numerous  Tinteil  Illustrations  and  a  Map,  and  over  100  Wood-cuts.    Complete 
in  two  volumes,  octavo,  of  over  500  pages  each,  handsomely  jirinted  in  pica 
type,  on  extra  fine  paper.     Price  $5,  in  emhlematic  cloth. 


The  work  embraces  the  following  distinct  journeys,  performed  during  the  progress  of 
ttje  survey : — 

1.  A  Journey  from  Indianola,  Texas,  to  El  Paso  del  Norte. 

2.  A  .Journey  to  the  Co[)per  Mines  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near  the  Gila,  and  a  resi- 
dence there  of  i'oiir  months. 

3.  A  Journey  to  Arispe  in  Sonora. 

4.  A  .Journey  along  the  boundary  line  south  of  the  Gil.i,  and  thence  through  another 
part  of  Sonora  to  Guaymas,  on  the  6nlf  of  California. 

5.  A  Voyage  down  tho  Gulf  of  California  to  Mazatlan  and  Acapuico,  and  thcnco  to  San 
Francisco. 

6.  Various  .Journeys  in  the  Interior  of  California. 

7.  A  .lourncy  from  San  Diego,  California,  by  way  of  the  Gila,  and  through  the  States  of 
Sonora  and  Chilinaliua  to  El  Paso. 

8.  A  Journey  frnin  EI  Paso  through  the  States  of  Cliiliu.ahua,  Durango,  Zacatecas,  Coa- 
huila,  and  Tainan lipas,  toCamargo,  on  the  Lower  Rio  Grande,  and  thence  through  tho  South- 
western part  of  Texas  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

List  of  the  larger  Tinted  Illustrations. 

Volume  I.— Snow  Storm  on  Delaware  Creek,  near  the  Pecos,  Texas. — 2.  Guadalupe  Pass 
on  Cooke's  Road,  Sierra  Madre,  Sonora. — 3.  Valley  Le.a(ling  to  Santa  Crnz,  Sonora.^. 
City  of  Ilermosillo,  Sonora.— 5.  City  of  Mazatlan,  Pacific  Coast.— G.  City  of  Acapuico, 
Pacific  Coast. 

Volume  II.— Ruins  at  Casas  Grandes,  Chihn.ahua.— 2.  Geysers,  Pluton  River,  California— 
3.  Geysers,  Pluton  River,  California. — i.  Napa  Valley  from  the  Obsidian  Hills,  Califor- 
nia.— 5.  Ascent  to  the  Quicksilver  Mine,  Now  Almaden. — 6.  View  on  the  River  Gila, 
Big  Horn  Monntain.— T.  Casas  Grandes,  River  Gila.— S.  Ruins  at  Casas  Grandes,  Chi- 
huahua.—9.  Organ  Mountains,  New  Mexico.— 10.  Fort  Yuma,  Junction  of  tho  Gila  and 
Colorado  Rivers. 

This  work  will  throw  a  flood  of  light  on  the  distant  and  hitherto  unknown  couutiles 
which  arc  now  attracting  so  much  attention.  The  vast  mineral  wealth  of  the  frontie? 
States  of  Mexico  oinl'raced  in  these  explorations — tlie  new  treaty  witli  Mexico,  made  by  the 
American  Minister,  (Jeneral  Gadsden,  fir  the  purchase  of  a  large  portion  of  this  territory— 
the  contem[ilated  railroad  through  it,  and  the  advantages  olfored  for  mining  and  agricul- 
tural purpo.ses  in  our  newly  acquired  territories,  as  well  as  those  contiguous,  render  this 
work  at  this  time  one  of  th«  most  imjiortantof  the  publications  of  the  day. 


THE    SPECTATOR    ENTIRE. 

%-HE  MOST   BEAU'riFUlL   EDITION    EVER   Pl'BEISJBED. 

D.  ArPLETON  &  COMPANY 

HAYK  JUST  PITBLISHED 

THE     "SPECTATOE:" 

WITH  PEEFACE8,  HISTOKICAL  AND  BIOGEAPUICAL, 

By  Alexander  Chalmers,  A.  M. 

J._  New  and  Carefully  Revised  Edition^ 

L'omplete  in  six  volumes,  8vo.,  pica  type.     Price  in  clotli,  $9 ;  half  calf 
extra  or  antique,  $15  ;  calf  extra  or  antique,  $20. 


"  It  is  praise  enough  to  say  of  a  -nriter,  tliat,  in  a  high  department  of  literature,  1b 
which  nianv  einiiientNvriters  have  distinguished  themselves,  he  li.is  had  no  equal ;  and 
this  may,  with  strict  justice,  be  said  of  Addison.  .  .  .  lie  is  entitled  to  be  considered 
not  only  as  the  greatest  of  the  English  es?.^yists,  but  as  the  forerunner  of  the  great_  Eng- 
lish novelists.  His  best  essays  aiiproach  near  to  absolute  perfection ;  nor  is  their  es- 
cellence  more  wonderful  th.au  their  variety.  His  invention  never  seems  to  flag;  nor  is 
ho  ever  under  the  necessity  of  repeating  himself,  or  of  wearing  cut  a  subject." — Ma- 
(Mulay. 

"  lie  was  not  only  the  ornament  of  his  age  and  country,  but  he  reflects  dignity  on 
the  nature  of  man.  lie  has  divested  vice  of  its  meretricious  ornaments,  and  painted 
religion  and  virtue  in  the  modest  and  graceful  attire  which  charm  .and  elevate  the 
neart." — Dr.  Anderson. 

"  In  Addison  tlie  reader  will  find  a  rich  and  chaste  vein  of  humor  and  satire ;  !es.-.ons 
of  mor.allty  and  religion,  divested  of  all  austerity  and  gloom ;  criticism  at  once  pleasing 
and  profoiind;  and  pictures  of  national  character  and  manners  that  must  ever  charm, 
from  then-  vivacity  and  truth."— 2>/'.  Ilurd. 

"  Of  Addison's  numerous  and  well-known  writings,  it  may  be  afflrmed,  that  they 
rest  on  the  solid  basis  of  real  excellence,  in  moral  terulency  as  well  as  literary  merit. 
Vice  and  folly  are  satirized,  \irtu6  and  decorum  are  rendered  attractive ;  and  while 
polished  diction  and  Attic  wit  abound,  the  purest  ethics  are  inculcated."— J/a?intZ«?'. 

"  His  glory  is  that  of  one  of  our  greatest  writers  in  prose.  Here,  with  his  delicate 
sense  of  proi>riety,  his  lively  fancy,  and,  above  all,  his  most  original  and  exquisite 
humor,  he  was  in  his  proper  walk.  He  is  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  popular  writ- 
ing, in  which,  like  most  other  founders  of  schools,  he  is  still  unsurpassed  by  any  who 
have  attempted  to  imitate  him.  His  Spectator  g.ave  us  the  first  exainjiles  of  a  style 
possessing  all  the  best  qualities  of  a  vehicle  of  gener.al  amusement  and  instruction ;  easy 
and  famiUar  without  c<iarseness,  animated  without  extravagance,  polished  without  un- 
natural lal»>r,  and,  from  its  flexibility,  adapted  to  all  the  variety  of  the  gay  and  tb* 
serious." — Penny  Cyclopedia. 

"To  correct  the  vices,  ridicule  the  follies,  and  dissipate  the  ignorance,  which  too 
generally  prevailed  at  tlio  commencement  of  the  eigliteenth  century,  wore  the  great 
and  noljie  objects  the  Spectator  ever  holds  in  view  ;  and  by  enlivening  morality  with 
wit,  and  temperini:  wit  with  morality,  not  only  were  those  objects  attained  in  an  emi- 
nent decree,  but  the  authors  conferred  a  hasting  benefit  on  their  country,  by  establishing 
and  rendering  popular  a  species  of  wniting  which  has  m.aterially  tended  to  cidtivate  the 
uuderstan<ling,  reline  the  taste,  and  augment  and  purify  the  moral  feeling  of  successive 
generations." — Chalmers. 

"  He  not  only  brought  a  good  philological  taste  into  fashion,  but  g.avo  a  pleasing  ole- 
yation  ami  i>opular  turn  to  religious  studies,  and  placed  Wilton  upon  a  pedestal  from 
which  he  can  never  be  pulled  down.'"— Aiken. 

"  It  stands  at  the  head  of  all  works  of  the  same  kind  that  have  since  been  produced, 
and  as  a  miscellany  of  polite  literature,  is  not  surpassed  by  any  book  whatever."- 
Chinnhers. 

"I  consider  the  ^/w'cicrtor  invaluable,  as  containing  on  the  subject  of  religion  all 
that  the  world  would  then  bear.  Had  Addison  or  his  friends  attempted  more,  it  would 
not  have  bien  en. lured.  The  work  was  a  stepping-stone  to  truth  of  tho  highest  orilw, 
■u  d.  as  such,  our  obligations  to  it  are  great."— ./o/m  Wealey. 


V.  APPLETON  ^  CO:S  PUBLICATION^ 


Standard  Historical  Works. 

I. 

THE  HISTORY   OF  ROME. 

By  THOMAS  ARNOLD,  D.  D.,  Late  Regius  Professor  of  Modern  Hm- 
tory  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Head  Master  of  Rugby 
School.     1  large  vol.  8vo.  pp.  686.     Price  $3. 

II. 

HISTORY   OF  FRANCE, 

FKOM  THE  EARLIEST  PERIOD  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
By  M.  MICHELET,  Professor  a  la  Faculte  des  Lettres,   Professor  4 
I'Ecole  Normale,  etc.     Translated  by  G.  H.  Smith,  F.  G.  S      2  Tola. 
8vo.  pp.  480  and  400.     Price  $3  50. 

III. 

HISTORY   OF    GERMANY, 

FROM  THE  EARLIEST  PERIOD  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 
By  FREDERICK  KOHLRAUSCH.     Translated  from  the  last  German 
Edition.     By  James  D.  Haas.     With  a  complete  index  prepared  ex- 
pressly for  the  American  edition.     1  vol.  8vo.  pp.  487.     Price  $1  60  j 
or,  an  Illustrated  Edition,  neatly  bound,  $2  60. 

IV. 

HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND, 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  UTRECHT  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  PARIS. 
By  LORD  MAHON.     2  large  vols.  Svo.  pp.  690,  609,  well  printed,  $4. 

V. 

A  DIGEST  OF  THE  LAWS,  CUSTOMS,  MANNERS,  AND 

INSTITUTIONS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

NATIONS. 
By  THOMAS   DEW,  Late  President  of  the  College  of  William  and 
Mary.     1  vol.  Svo.  pp.  6*70,  well  printed.     Price  $2. 

VI. 

A  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  HISTORY. 
By  W.  C.  TAYLOR,  LL.  D.,  &c.  1  large  volume,  Svo.  pp.  866.  Price  2  26. 

VII. 
THE  HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION,  FROM  THE  FALL  OF 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  TO  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 
By  F.  GUIZOT.    Translated  by  W.  Hazlitt.    4  vols.  12mo.    $3  50. 


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